tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-57527486066467466342024-03-05T15:05:59.002-08:00Human BiologyThis blog is for communication and reports for Biology 156.Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.comBlogger27125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-75964075458101505192008-05-17T16:46:00.001-07:002008-05-17T16:59:27.883-07:00Self and Unit EvaluationWas looking for my grades and remembered that I did not post this eval. I guess I thought I had done it, since I filled out the class evaluation for Yavapai College. So whether or not it's worth anything, I thought I would post it anyway.<br /><br />What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?<br />I felt as though I learned valuable lessons. Initially, I was dissapointed that I had to learn about the integration of species, etc., and not just human systems, but now I have a better appreciation of the earth's resources than before. This will definately impact the way I choose products.<br />I do feel as though the assignments were complete. Except I almost forgot to submit this eval . . .<br />I enjoyed finding the photos and felt like they displayed my points and sometimes off-humor . . .<br />2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?<br />I don't feel as though there was much room for improvement. I worked pretty hard on these assignments.<br />3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?<br />Again, hoping for an A.<br />4. How could I perform better in the next unit?<br />We're done!!! Next unit is summer break and I hope to excell at that as well.<br /><br />REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")<br />At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?<br />Began to enjoy the compendiums better. I thoroughly enjoy the online labs. They create an atmosphere of learning that's new and fun.<br /> <br />At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?<br /> <br />Early in the course, I hated working on those tedious compendiums. I have come to enjoy picking out information and finding correlating information and pics.<br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?<br />Mr. Frolich is always encouraging. Now whenever I hear any one say, "have fun" I shall think of him. He always puts that at the end of his instructions.<br /> <br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?<br /> None.<br />What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)<br />What is surprising is that I now feel more aware of my environment and have an fresh awareness of personal responsibility regarding it's upkeep.<br />Thank you, Mr. Frolich for this enlightening course.Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com31tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-16721420100314185182008-05-11T23:01:00.001-07:002008-05-12T14:01:30.758-07:00Online Lab: Human Population DemographicsHUMAN POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS LAB WRITE-UP<br /><br /><br />Below is a depiction of the world's population growth from 1990 - 2050 resting above the expected growth pattern for Ethiopia.<br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzDT8SSzAPW6GFZMcNS15dLCtAmn1J3G8LCsMdI5IJcPUNL0OPqhTkdRTed0hR0WKoRGjgqIHmMsmUgC6qwR03YfvarOZr2yKSozHmZTa20WA6SGW3mf9o3zyGEAmQsWSWjwHzDBESysvR/s1600-h/worldethiopia.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199589960730322466" style="CURSOR: hand" height="380" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzDT8SSzAPW6GFZMcNS15dLCtAmn1J3G8LCsMdI5IJcPUNL0OPqhTkdRTed0hR0WKoRGjgqIHmMsmUgC6qwR03YfvarOZr2yKSozHmZTa20WA6SGW3mf9o3zyGEAmQsWSWjwHzDBESysvR/s400/worldethiopia.gif" width="510" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Ethiopia is the high fertility rate depicted at 6.9. Because the fertility rate is so high, the population has a large percentage of children, who will be entering their reproductive stage. This means that the population will continue to grow exponentially because parents will continue to live while their children are growing and reproducing themselves. The life expectancy is only 51.8 years, approximately 17 years lower than the world's average. This will ease the population growth some, but not enought to stop or reverse the pattern already established.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Below is a depiction of the world's population growth with an example of Japan's growth shown beneath it.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI1WKflKdpgRzsIRdL7egiRPrgRJiezESZSzd2sb86KpvazGIx8-AmJi0-l23UN6nyOtQUGClAT3A6pONFC-p6CcVMStUeW-gOQAWi8CgeUu1HqKTkWdnkFvD2aoae1syWtmLrtu6VuwWr/s1600-h/worldjapan.gif"></a><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiU3HZP7NWR9jfXL1iL-Z3RFYz0xvjrJobpTdkBs4VL2aQaY7YodHhokZi3h4F1pGh0A1MDDqdWS1uk8KwpUUe5SxGObOeU-mwAQV8dRtrT_477cHOGvbFjrG07XHEJC8tUx1Kz_ivwIE8f/s1600-h/worldjapan.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199589973615224370" style="CURSOR: hand" height="423" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiU3HZP7NWR9jfXL1iL-Z3RFYz0xvjrJobpTdkBs4VL2aQaY7YodHhokZi3h4F1pGh0A1MDDqdWS1uk8KwpUUe5SxGObOeU-mwAQV8dRtrT_477cHOGvbFjrG07XHEJC8tUx1Kz_ivwIE8f/s400/worldjapan.gif" width="494" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Japan's fertility rate is low, 1.6%. As people choose to have fewer children, the number of middle-aged people begins to outnumber their replacements. This poses a larger economic responsibility on younger people. As the middle-aged population enters retirement, there will be a shift in the job market as positions will have no one to fill them. Medicare and social security in the USA (our rate is similar) will be straining to support the elderly, if it can at all.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />How will this affect attitudes in situations of greater populations of children?<br /><br /><br />Perhaps, parents will feel pressured to limit their offspring. In dire circumstances, such as in China, abortions may be forced upon couples to maintain "equilibrium". Maybe parents will have to choose which of their children will be fed or be schooled because of limited resources. Children are needed in some poorer regions to help support the family and that is why many of these MDCs continue to have large families. Hopefully, education will prevail and options more suitable to better quality of life will help parents decide and take control of their own family's future.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />In populations where the middle-aged and elderly are prevalent, quality of life may be interpreted by others and early termination may be considered to be an option. Remember "Soylent Green?" Instead of representing wisdom, the elderly will be a burden, perceived as unproductive and a drain on medical systems. I would like to see the middle-aged working later into their golden years, contributing more in the workplace and volunteering to fill positions needed in their community. I think that organizations like SCORE (a resource of retired business people who volunteer to advise people interested in owning a business) are a valuable commodity. Efforts should be made to avoid the polarization of the young vs the old.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />In either one of these circumstances, it is unfortunate that people (very young or very old) may be perceived as dispensable (or do I mean disposable?).<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />If we step back and assess every situation we find ourselves in, we should be innovative enough to overcome the difficulties that arise. A few dedicated people to get the word out and some resources to help those in need can begin to make the impact for change.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />I want to thank you for opening my eyes. I hope I am able to make some of the changes needed to help change the direction we're heading.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Foster grandparents at work . . .</span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"></span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7izvTZoksTN5MAU6FpZGSrU87gcEhll18ALaWERMeurcUQ2VIjISE9K4Sm2XYFzlKiH1OE0w8gnX0FJ-2fXHoBhyt0VA4O6bPeYoatRv-s2kyZxLTLQYNqW66tcKdhM45gKeEISHc_P2N/s1600-h/Foster-Grandparents_volunteer.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199599207794910786" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7izvTZoksTN5MAU6FpZGSrU87gcEhll18ALaWERMeurcUQ2VIjISE9K4Sm2XYFzlKiH1OE0w8gnX0FJ-2fXHoBhyt0VA4O6bPeYoatRv-s2kyZxLTLQYNqW66tcKdhM45gKeEISHc_P2N/s400/Foster-Grandparents_volunteer.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.mvcaa.com/UserFiles/Image/Foster-Grandparents_volunteer.jpg">http://www.mvcaa.com/UserFiles/Image/Foster-Grandparents_volunteer.jpg</a>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-7182442840071285482008-05-11T22:21:00.001-07:002008-05-11T22:31:18.499-07:00Essay: Who Should Reproduce?Who Should Reproduce?<br /><br />Some folks are asking, should we reproduce at all? Given the negative impact humankind has had on the environment, the conclusion drawn by a wary few, is that we should remove ourselves from earth all together.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUZ3_dZ_G3jTI20Gt8PeOp9m49Zi0FcWLVuDwtq1gFe6KB0_ViEUvx_CW-BQ6FGgyIP9j_ge_emIqmB2zz59aOw7iso32KbIJkJOwhuqOVR9wIZ9HHAmhHKYEgm0ZvTadMXIBsGA5IBd-Y/s1600-h/fertility+rate.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199358380388689314" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUZ3_dZ_G3jTI20Gt8PeOp9m49Zi0FcWLVuDwtq1gFe6KB0_ViEUvx_CW-BQ6FGgyIP9j_ge_emIqmB2zz59aOw7iso32KbIJkJOwhuqOVR9wIZ9HHAmhHKYEgm0ZvTadMXIBsGA5IBd-Y/s400/fertility+rate.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html">http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html</a><br />With all the talk about population growth, we tend to think that less developed nations (LDCs) are the greatest offenders. Their population growth is still 16 times the average growth of more developed nations (MDCs). MDC’s have a global population growth of 0.1% (the USA has 0.6%) and LDCs growth rate is 1.6%.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Population Rates of LDCs and MDCs . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF6ucDVCEMLCLNv-WNHp-bd5IPqX1kD3hxHVyWbID0FqrDTFQWEwCKFDSSQL16-JZU_HyU7j_G8RiXur125wLA7Weo1nlZoFcKVt4x1tFOu4R8LuM3XqKzgcEzanNYfU77yA8WTZtKoM3P/s1600-h/population+chart.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199359016043849154" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF6ucDVCEMLCLNv-WNHp-bd5IPqX1kD3hxHVyWbID0FqrDTFQWEwCKFDSSQL16-JZU_HyU7j_G8RiXur125wLA7Weo1nlZoFcKVt4x1tFOu4R8LuM3XqKzgcEzanNYfU77yA8WTZtKoM3P/s400/population+chart.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html">http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html</a><br />Collectively, we are adding 78 million people annually to the world’s population. However, when we consider sustainability or carrying capacity, then we must also look at the resources each population consumes.<br />The organization represented below allows you to enter your lifestyle and consumptive habits. I consider myself to be an average consumer. If everyone on earth lived as I do, we would need the resources of 5.3 planets. As we take the quiz, there are suggestions as to how we can modify our choices to better respect the environment and its limitations.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Results of environmental footprint quiz . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqDS_9JB_kBEPdFHXohcECDwHV1Kq4NIX_uECKgjFoQDma4xDEk_ZmjPVad65l4kAamXj70LND5cB8TTZSnIvOgwiFKRUnAaVmbzV8oT9Gatp2Z8U-XgbizSj8LeF6LtiFvDb4jQZE2JEF/s1600-h/footprint.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199358384683656626" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqDS_9JB_kBEPdFHXohcECDwHV1Kq4NIX_uECKgjFoQDma4xDEk_ZmjPVad65l4kAamXj70LND5cB8TTZSnIvOgwiFKRUnAaVmbzV8oT9Gatp2Z8U-XgbizSj8LeF6LtiFvDb4jQZE2JEF/s400/footprint.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.myfootprint.org/en/quiz_results/</span><br /><br />Obviously, everyone doesn’t have this lifestyle. So we can conclude that the less-developed, overly-populated countries are using far less than we are. In fact, Mr. Frolich states from the Human Biology site that a typical US child will use enough resources to support 300 children in Ethiopia. I have to ask, support them adequately? Because they use less, doesn’t mean that it is optimal. Diseases and health issues arise from squalor.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Ethiopia</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG9Jy8iKag5s7y9deNvurgSt-ZxJYw3iz2iNaEFxs1pa1QqTHZBLW6iVR8FH0U6CxaogZsmG-k7_5YwZ6o-VkXSTTE77amYjiDtDLgRqebGETNHImXUdjTnAf0hWsY-Q6zsf59jVPCkqY5/s1600-h/ethiopia.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199358380388689298" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG9Jy8iKag5s7y9deNvurgSt-ZxJYw3iz2iNaEFxs1pa1QqTHZBLW6iVR8FH0U6CxaogZsmG-k7_5YwZ6o-VkXSTTE77amYjiDtDLgRqebGETNHImXUdjTnAf0hWsY-Q6zsf59jVPCkqY5/s400/ethiopia.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/41239000/jpg/_41239342_08ethiopiacarcas_rters.jpg">http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/41239000/jpg/_41239342_08ethiopiacarcas_rters.jpg</a><br />‘Who is impacting the environment’ seems to be the pivotal question. MDCs are greater consumers, but LDCs are already living in sub-standard, unhealthy conditions and their populations are growing at a far greater rate. They, too, have negatively impacted their environment.<br />Who should reproduce? Couples who want children and can provide a stable and loving environment for their children. These issues will not leave us; rather they will challenge us to consume smartly, recycle and reuse, to educate fellow humans and pull together lest we all fall apart. I cannot embrace a mentality similar to Hitler’s or China’s in cleansing or reducing the burden of the human population. I believe that education is our best tool. If women were aware of their options for birth control and the tools needed for such were available, we would see a drastic reduction in birth rate (I should mention that men need education as well). If the common man were aware of the impact of his choices, maybe he would make different ones.<br />Education and understanding may stir up in us the desire to make a few sacrifices, chose a little differently, and live in better harmony in the diverse biosphere created for us.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Mankind . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbmxvCmIBb7y0Ug_b-zP1hCx_m0dEubv7F4lAleLXP6aLxOTWt98pOqEHynp92UYX4eFTeH_RwolEpbi08XDjCCPsiYiY47VpB4oYq_8SXVKmT7Juq6W_Nv-J9Bll1t2-Ly8N92SB77eSI/s1600-h/people.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5199358376093721986" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbmxvCmIBb7y0Ug_b-zP1hCx_m0dEubv7F4lAleLXP6aLxOTWt98pOqEHynp92UYX4eFTeH_RwolEpbi08XDjCCPsiYiY47VpB4oYq_8SXVKmT7Juq6W_Nv-J9Bll1t2-Ly8N92SB77eSI/s400/people.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://socialsciences.people.hawaii.edu/images/people.jpg</span>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-44632629263094632272008-05-10T21:10:00.000-07:002008-05-10T22:15:35.352-07:00Species Interaction Project<div><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Lab 4 Project: List of Species</span></strong><br /><br /><br /></div><div><span style="color:#009900;">My day has just begun. After sleeping with a mattress full of dust mites . . .<br /></span><strong>Dermatophagoides farina</strong> – (dust mites, bed bugs)<br />Living in a commensalistic relationship, we acknowledge that these mites must dine on something, so my dead skin provides endless banquets and literally costs me nothing. I am not allergic to them or their excrements. According to Environment Health and Safety, there may be 100,000 to 10 million mites inside my mattress. Ten percent of the weight of my pillow at 2 years old may actually be dead mites and their droppings. These are not domesticated, but rather wild organisms. If humans had their way, these would be eliminated because it’s just gross to think about sleeping with these bugs. Pleasant dreams . . . </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The dust mite . . .</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUQvPLe1oeWYoXx4SWkX2C8YCQtQiS5Z6vmbRZdsVCw5fjPIEO6SLhiqcvTUXJqgFRHOV1qzF4FOEoWuYfm2w7YoDCOItaXmGSSM6jRsgAQEOhy390UaeLwQdlIQCGWlpNM-yTlnbGemON/s1600-h/dustmite5_otuj.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198972911380719506" style="WIDTH: 448px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 496px" height="372" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUQvPLe1oeWYoXx4SWkX2C8YCQtQiS5Z6vmbRZdsVCw5fjPIEO6SLhiqcvTUXJqgFRHOV1qzF4FOEoWuYfm2w7YoDCOItaXmGSSM6jRsgAQEOhy390UaeLwQdlIQCGWlpNM-yTlnbGemON/s400/dustmite5_otuj.jpg" width="352" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.trianglehygienitech.com/images/dustmite5_otuj.jpg">http://www.trianglehygienitech.com/images/dustmite5_otuj.jpg</a> </div><div><br /></div><div><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Back to the story: I got up from my crowded bed and proceeded to the bathroom. Washing my hands of e coli . . .<br /></span><strong>Escherichia coli</strong> – (e-coli) A bacterium commonly found in the lower intestines which has several strains. Harmless strains actually produce vitamin K and will prevent pathogenic organisms from becoming established in the bowel. It is the harmful strain, <a title="Serovar" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serovar"><span style="color:#000000;">serotype</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> </span><a title="Escherichia coli O157:H7" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7"><span style="color:#000000;">O157:H7</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">,</span> which can cause serious illness and death. For the harmless strain, the relationship is mutualistic; both benefit from the relationship. The harmful strain is parasitic in nature, even potentially leading to the death of the host and subsequently, the bacteria. The future for this relationship will continue to be a) for the harmless strain, mutually beneficial and b) for serotype 0157:H7, limited due to diligence and handwashing.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">I turned on the coffee machine and proceeded to listen to it grind the beans . . .<br /></span><strong>Coffea arabica</strong> – (coffee) A tropical plant that produces beans from which a very popular, caffeinated beverage is made. This relationship is beneficial to humans in a very major way. Even the people who don’t drink it benefit from the perkiness and alertness of those who do. This is a predatoristic relationship and would not benefit this plant, except that we want this relationship to thrive, so we will plant ample replacements. Coffee plants will survive forever, at least the flavorful ones will. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Coffee Plant . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNbPGHoh8l58QeIOhQ1vbrqUXzCRjrZsLmPEQUxbckKK2G_yJpIG9UywhOwscpbuUAfDc2b94EZhPChhgH684rBuU1yM7FgH1kXnrst4925nS48Q0AKVq7PvfWFsMGk7ZaeGnnKs8kfH34/s1600-h/coffee.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198971897768437618" style="WIDTH: 316px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 310px" height="272" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNbPGHoh8l58QeIOhQ1vbrqUXzCRjrZsLmPEQUxbckKK2G_yJpIG9UywhOwscpbuUAfDc2b94EZhPChhgH684rBuU1yM7FgH1kXnrst4925nS48Q0AKVq7PvfWFsMGk7ZaeGnnKs8kfH34/s400/coffee.jpg" width="316" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">After the steamy, hot, aromatic coffee is done pouring into my cup, I pour in a generous portion of soy milk . . .</span><br /><strong>Glycine L. max</strong> – (soy) Native to east Asia, this plant produces an annual crop of beans which are, by weight, 40% protein and 20% fat. Most of the soy crop is used as animal feed and a relatively small portion is consumed by humans. This relationship is very similar to our coffee relationship. We harvest the beans and plant replacements. We are the predators and the propagators. This relationship will continue and perhaps soy will flourish because of its excellent nutritional content and is a cheap alternative to meat. It is uncertain whether the original plant or the genetically altered plant will prevail. In any event, I would certainly label soy a domesticated species.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Now that I am sufficiently perked, I look at the dog . . .</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Buster . . . (had his nose in flour)</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7H3q81WQX_H7m11ghOWIHcbge1RTE8ZqgZGolzdsrWbfBEIRgjwSCWfkL87CRANZF-Ajh3FamHxgIEyrAxpyqKmJwE0KdXEKU5GvUy0V6ySWmL3SdczSyIydzpklKJJw4YYbwzuVuQGE7/s1600-h/buster.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198970592098379570" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7H3q81WQX_H7m11ghOWIHcbge1RTE8ZqgZGolzdsrWbfBEIRgjwSCWfkL87CRANZF-Ajh3FamHxgIEyrAxpyqKmJwE0KdXEKU5GvUy0V6ySWmL3SdczSyIydzpklKJJw4YYbwzuVuQGE7/s400/buster.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><strong>Canis lupus familiaris</strong> – (domestic dog) Mine is a black labrador/mix. He is hungry and wants to go outside. I get some dog food and fill his other bowl with water and begin to wonder who is the master. He is appreciative, so I feel OK with my servitude. This is a symbiotic relationship. He gives companionship and some protection if he barks (probably while hiding under a table or behind me) and I provide shelter, food and companionship. This relationship between dog and humans has evolved into manipulation of the species by selective breeding and encouraging different traits to accommodate our needs/desires. Dogs have served humans for an untold number of centuries and there are many instances where they are, indeed, man’s best friend. The domestic dog is definitely a domesticated species.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">So the dog is fed and happy, and it’s time to get ready for work. I wash my face and brush my teeth . . .</span><br /><strong>Streptococcus mutans and anaerobes</strong> - Biofilm (dental plaque) is a film of microorganisms that builds up on teeth. This film is composed mostly of bacteria. This is a commensalistic relationship and the bacteria is not domesticated. The bacteria is harmless unless it remains on the teeth. The film thickens and the organisms nearest the tooth convert to anaerobic respiration which produces acids that demineralize the surface of the teeth. I’ve not read that bacterium have become resistive to brushing and flossing so it’s future in today’s society will be limited in those who do regular mouth hygiene. As long as there are mouths with teeth and food (particularly sugar) to be eaten, there will be biofilm. If man had his way, there would be a vaccination that would eliminate the bacteria altogether. It’s future with mankind is uncertain.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">After reading the labels on the beauty products, I find one with English words, it is Pycnogenol wrinkle cream . . .</span><br /><strong>Pinus pinaster </strong>(French Maritime Pine) – The bark of this tree is used commonly in alternative medicine to reduce inflammation. It is taken orally or topically to achieve stated goal. Recent studies also state that Pycnogenol slows glucose absorption 190 times more potently than prescription medication and also has many other health benefits. I also take this orally for joint pain, which I haven’t had for years while on it. These trees grow along the coast of southwest France.<br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">French Maritime Pine Trees</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik0Pt9dkAYWG1FwiL-c9GMRb-yaPN-vbFPpzgDlV7LgaDPUP9iFgrYHOTrf4rHk754YaibWbgWlZ6a_W7S4ER5uBm-8W1vmZTFEJMPGov6lddMjCp6TedZXKlFGx_AsYxcVQoIAqPYHdzG/s1600-h/pinus+pine.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198970592098379586" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik0Pt9dkAYWG1FwiL-c9GMRb-yaPN-vbFPpzgDlV7LgaDPUP9iFgrYHOTrf4rHk754YaibWbgWlZ6a_W7S4ER5uBm-8W1vmZTFEJMPGov6lddMjCp6TedZXKlFGx_AsYxcVQoIAqPYHdzG/s400/pinus+pine.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.seedman.com/image/sec153.jpg">http://www.seedman.com/image/sec153.jpg</a></div><div><br /></div><div><br />Because of the preponderance of research being done on Pycnogenol, I am not able to determine if there are groves of this tree for mass production or if raw landscapes are being harvested. I will call these wild. Given the huge impact this plant has made on various health issues, I would hope that these trees are being replaced.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Having sufficiently creamed, colored and plastered my face, I proceed to dressing. The scrubs are 100% cotton . . .</span><br /><a title="Gossypium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossypium"><strong><span style="color:#000000;">Gossypium</span></strong></a> – (cotton) A shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions, cotton is the most common textile today. Cotton has been genetically modified (GM)to resist boll weevils. Twenty percent of the worldwide area of planted cotton is GM. 75% of US cotton was GM in 2003. This is a commensal relationship that will not eliminate the cotton plant. I believe if you can call plants domesticated this would be one. It is perennial and will continue to grow after harvesting. What may eliminate the original plant is genetic engineering and the replacement of original, organic cotton with such. Of interest, my deodorant is without aluminum and uses cotton to help absorb perspiration.<br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Cotton plant . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtd-nxu4c8KUOGIrgsvAfYyhmZ6lnY8Ka4zElvaHmbfAzZou8yvaiW9GJYYe87KbjnKeMskdjB3nCjY-Syo-1FO_xLwgj0WgLqX0B65cU5-td9ByLSW9AP0lTiZ0v8yXRcBVnYjuq_2CHg/s1600-h/cotton.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198970596393346898" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtd-nxu4c8KUOGIrgsvAfYyhmZ6lnY8Ka4zElvaHmbfAzZou8yvaiW9GJYYe87KbjnKeMskdjB3nCjY-Syo-1FO_xLwgj0WgLqX0B65cU5-td9ByLSW9AP0lTiZ0v8yXRcBVnYjuq_2CHg/s400/cotton.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.geocities.com/civilwarstudy101/cotton.html" target="_top">www.geocities.com/civilwarstudy101/cotton.html</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">My work shoes are leather . . .</span><br /><br /><strong>D</strong><a title="Domestication" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>omesticated</strong></span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><strong> </strong></span><a title="Ungulate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulate"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>ungulates</strong></span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>,</strong></span> a member of the <a title="Subfamily" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfamily"><span style="color:#000000;">subfamily</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> </span><a title="Bovinae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovinae"><span style="color:#000000;">Bovinae</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> – (cow)I am assuming that the leather came from cows. The world cattle population is estimated at 1.3 billion. They have been domesticated since the Neolithic age. I think this relationship is both predatistic and mutualistic, depending on the use of the cattle. “A 400-page </span><a title="United Nations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"><span style="color:#000000;">United Nations</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> report from the </span><a title="Food and Agriculture Organization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization"><span style="color:#000000;">Food and Agriculture Organization</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> (FAO) states that cattle farming is "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases."</span><span style="color:#000000;">The production of cattle to feed and clothe humans stresses ecosystems around the world,</span><span style="color:#000000;"> and is assessed to be one of the top three environmental problems in the world on a local to global scale.”</span><span style="color:#000000;"> "Cattle." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 28 Apr 2008, 19:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 30 Apr 2008 </span><<a title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cattle&oldid=208822670" oldid="208822670">http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cattle&oldid=208822670</a>>.<br />Cattle have been altered to best serve our perceived needs and will continue to be subjected to the changing desires of man.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Well, shoes are on and the face is presentable. It’s time to head towards work. It’s a beautiful day and the birds are singing . . .</span><br /><strong>Passeriformes emberizidae</strong> (warblers) – I don’t know the name of the birds I heard, but these sound as though they make noise and they’re from our local bird guide. Birds are often a mixed blessing. They’re messy and noisy to some, or they are music makers to others. Birds are kept as pets and have been bred for certain traits and they are also wild. Wild collisions with aircraft cost US civil aviation more than $470 million annually. Wild birds cost property owners millions of dollars annually for damage to homes and landscaping. Bird attacks on people and bird droppings also pose health hazards. Attempts are being made to find ways of coexisting with these wild birds. I’m sure populations of birds are being affected by reduced natural habitats caused by urban developments. Their future is uncertain because attempts will be made to accommodate their needs. Our relationship with wild birds is symbiotic – we benefit from their music and perhaps some insect/worm control and they benefit from bird feeders and baths. </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Pine warbler . . .</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieFEPJbXfG55Qm0g9ffvG3yognJFe8-X-FCkJ9AR5JlSYYhjj4Hvl8MdSVV_o3sOQJJz-IeEsHInvVToHMf9IAqrLgPnwAQTXLsJsw0vYijpoLeT89OhJibYzCixStz7MHrvWlMITgIeDO/s1600-h/WarblerPine04.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198970596393346914" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieFEPJbXfG55Qm0g9ffvG3yognJFe8-X-FCkJ9AR5JlSYYhjj4Hvl8MdSVV_o3sOQJJz-IeEsHInvVToHMf9IAqrLgPnwAQTXLsJsw0vYijpoLeT89OhJibYzCixStz7MHrvWlMITgIeDO/s400/WarblerPine04.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.hiltonpond.org/images/WarblerPine04.jpg">http://www.hiltonpond.org/images/WarblerPine04.jpg</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">I pause to admire the blossoms on the pear tree . . .<br /></span><strong>Pyrus communis sativa</strong> (pear) – A common fruit that grows on trees. It is sweet and can be eaten raw or cooked. We have pear orchids for mass production. This is a commensal relationship because we cultivate and maintain pear orchids to preserve production. The trees are not harmed with harvest. Pears and humans will continue to benefit from each other for a long time.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">I drive to work and walk on the sidewalk to avoid trampling the grass . . .</span><br /><strong>Cynodon dactylon</strong> (Bermuda Grass) – Bermuda grass, is of probable Asian origin and was documented as an important grass in the United States by l807. It is a long-lived, warm season perennial that spreads by rhizomes, stolons, and seed. It is used in warm climates and grows well in temperatures exceeding 100 degrees F. In some areas, it is considered noxious and invasive. Bermuda grass will continue to be utilized as long as we have water to throw on our lawns. I’m sure it has been modified in some way to accommodate different areas of application. In that respect, I would have to say most of the existing Bermuda grass is probably domesticated. Our relationship is mutualistic. </div><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Bermuda Grass . . .</span><br /><div></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifKjiRmCWSxmqhfrrGJeaffvMI7Zhkj6LY-tJwgRsI36QKm4eVtjhub3YZR9r2Df3ONyJ44vMSTiZ9Qm31yGHPLiDXW2J1nzHUFlgjZ90yyRMamxWD1_P7BFtAyYS2_hiAiSYQsg5NQYv8/s1600-h/grass-with-legs.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198984293044053922" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifKjiRmCWSxmqhfrrGJeaffvMI7Zhkj6LY-tJwgRsI36QKm4eVtjhub3YZR9r2Df3ONyJ44vMSTiZ9Qm31yGHPLiDXW2J1nzHUFlgjZ90yyRMamxWD1_P7BFtAyYS2_hiAiSYQsg5NQYv8/s400/grass-with-legs.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.floridahydroseeding.com/images/grass-with-legs.jpg">http://www.floridahydroseeding.com/images/grass-with-legs.jpg</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">After report, I administer Insulin to a patient . . .</span><br /><strong>Escherichia coli</strong> (e-coli) – Surprised to see that? The very bacteria I washed from my hands earlier today produces insulin using recumbant DNA techniques. Human DNA is “introduced” (simply stated) to the bacteria which will reproduce at an incredible rate. Prior to this technology, Porcine was the primary source for Insulin. By 2001, 95% of all insulin-dependent diabetics were using this genetically modified insulin. Well, e-coli is not a domestic species, but I would have to say the lab-contained version would probably be classified as such. I would say this is a predatoristic relationship, since the bacteria are destroyed when the insulin is removed. The future for this bacteria is very strong, even without lab-grown populations.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Another patient is given a Cranberry Capsule . . .<br /></span><strong>Vaccinium oxycoccus</strong> (cranberries) – Since the beginning of the 21st century, cranberries have enjoyed increased popularity and <span style="color:#000000;">their nutrient</span> <span style="color:#000000;">content and antioxidant</span><span style="color:#000000;"> qualities have given them commercial status as a "superfruit</span><span style="color:#000000;">". It is the main agricultural export for several states</span> and in Canada. It is no longer wild in Scotland. Arctic, Nordic and Russian people are still harvested from the wild. Cranberries have been approved by the French government for use as an antibacterial agent for urinary tract infections. This is a mutualistic relationship, because the plants are not harmed and they are farmed to maintain their numbers. Wild plants have decreased in number because of diminishing wild lands.<br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Cranberry harvesting . . . Yumm!</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPQ5Z5CDpqut7WB18KtM9bQYSYJXG3BF1k5Y8JDDrWdROFn0dEIWfS1QFQ5JGoPxjuPAZjRyJGe60ugcU9HGCD715ZJOMaCdmjxfUEnyNpLqqzpBPgM6Uv-prjCgydfmnkU8gBUvKcGSmv/s1600-h/cranberries.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198968423139895026" style="WIDTH: 523px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 404px" height="356" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPQ5Z5CDpqut7WB18KtM9bQYSYJXG3BF1k5Y8JDDrWdROFn0dEIWfS1QFQ5JGoPxjuPAZjRyJGe60ugcU9HGCD715ZJOMaCdmjxfUEnyNpLqqzpBPgM6Uv-prjCgydfmnkU8gBUvKcGSmv/s400/cranberries.jpg" width="487" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranberry">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranberry</a> </span></div><span style="color:#3333ff;"><div><br /></div><div><br /></span></div><div><span style="color:#009900;">I break for lunch and eat a peanut butter and jelly sandwich . . .<br /></span><strong>Arachis hypogaea</strong> (peanut)-The domesticated peanut has two sets of chromosomes from two different species which may have occurred in Argentina or Bolivia. The peanut was introduced to China in the 1600’s and a different species again in the 1800’s. By 2006, China was the world’s greatest producer of peanuts. This is a predatoristic relationship, since the entire plant must be removed to harvest the peanuts.<br /></div><div><br /><strong>Fragaria ananassa</strong> (strawberry)-Strawberries are cultivated and harvested primarily in the northern Americas. The plants remain in the soil and will produce smaller crops each year. The soil will need to be re-seeded every 2-3 years. This is a parasitic relationship. The plants will be replanted every few years to keep production optimal. Wild strawberries will continue as long as there continues to be wild landscape to accommodate the species.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Bread . . .</span><br /><strong>Triticum T. aestivum</strong> (bread wheat) – Gobally, the second most produced food crop. This is a domesticated species whose demand is higher than the yield. There was a big push to begin using genetically modified wheat in 2005, but the plans for implementation were withdrawn. Many people have wheat allergies and 1 out of every 1-200 people have Celiac’s disease, an auto immune disorder wherein the person affected cannot tolerate the wheat’s protein. Wheat does grow in the wild, but it is now domesticated. This is a predatoristic relationship.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">With the peanut butter and jelly sandwich, I drink a large, cold glass of milk . . .</span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Bos taurus</strong> (</span>dairy cow) – This is a domesticated animal, that is raised to produce milk for human consumption. Cattle farming contributes 18% of all greenhouse gasses. This is a predatoristic relationship. Cattle are kept until they can no longer produce milk. Then they are destroyed and their meat is used for cheaper cuts such as hamburger. </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The cow . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlUCuA5m_XIYG4TLWk3L3ozH_CiCj39DfY-3_XmqyN8j8jhohh4CcBnQsTcJ9uyj7rtl9b3hXCCL1ihERBgt3m9mRL8Bg1BeyoKauUImS8GEP1m_h1hy44zWLcFGGx4IU7pk6ccGaFCdVU/s1600-h/cow.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198968431729829634" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlUCuA5m_XIYG4TLWk3L3ozH_CiCj39DfY-3_XmqyN8j8jhohh4CcBnQsTcJ9uyj7rtl9b3hXCCL1ihERBgt3m9mRL8Bg1BeyoKauUImS8GEP1m_h1hy44zWLcFGGx4IU7pk6ccGaFCdVU/s400/cow.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.dorlingkindersley-uk.co.uk/static/clipart/uk/dk/farm/image_farm002.jpg">http://www.dorlingkindersley-uk.co.uk/static/clipart/uk/dk/farm/image_farm002.jpg</a> <span style="font-size:+0;"></span><span style="font-size:+0;"></span><span style="font-size:+0;"></span><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">So after that nutritious lunch, I return to work. Many of the residents get calcium . . .</span><br /><a title="Crassostrea gigas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassostrea_gigas"><strong><span style="color:#000000;">Crassostrea gigas</span></strong></a> (oyster) – these are marine animals, comprised of two calcified halves surrounding their soft body. This succulent body is a treat for many people. The shells are a source of Calcium Carbonate. These animals have been cultivated for over a century, but many are still wild. The relationship we have with this animal is predatoristic. Their future is promising so long as they are the ones we cultivate. Marine habitats are changing and becoming polluted, so the future of the wild oysters is uncertain.<br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">It’s getting warmer and the bugs are starting to appear. There are huge flycatchers in the dining room . . .</span><br /><strong>Musca domestica</strong> (housefly) – one of the most widely distributed pests. Flies are capable of carrying over 100 diseases and some strains have become resistant to pesticides. Our relationship with flies is commensal, they benefit from our garbage, livestock, and pets’ refuse. Flies will probably be around forever. There’s always “food” available. </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Fly - up close and personal . . .</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0mToS13THBD96mWc7ojnGKNDKGrWKrKMvWsNT7aGuDANougDkb5KKBPfrF9V7mPomnvEx4n2t6LrWsLBccT-_I-lVI10_OQVBH1Ita52GtfQ42acOAspKLWVrnF3uB8y-qRfzuMlnyI-B/s1600-h/housefly1280_4370_1.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198968436024796946" style="CURSOR: hand" height="409" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0mToS13THBD96mWc7ojnGKNDKGrWKrKMvWsNT7aGuDANougDkb5KKBPfrF9V7mPomnvEx4n2t6LrWsLBccT-_I-lVI10_OQVBH1Ita52GtfQ42acOAspKLWVrnF3uB8y-qRfzuMlnyI-B/s400/housefly1280_4370_1.jpg" width="469" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.nhm.ac.uk/kids-only/downloads/images/housefly1280_4370_1.jpg</span><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">Well, work is done, and it’s time to pick up a few things on the way home. I pull into Frys.<br />My kids love bananas . . .</span><br /><strong>Musa acuminata</strong> (bananas) – cultivated throughout the tropics, they are loved and enjoyed year-round. Bananas are exported while still green to reduce damage and bruising. The majority of these are gassed with ethylene gas to make them ripen. Bananas were documented first in Asia and domestication began there. They still grow in the wild, but most bananas are cultivated. Cultivated bananas are sterile and are reproduced by cuttings. This is a mutualistic relationship because these bananas would not reproduce without us and we would not enjoy their fruit without them.<br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Bananas in Bloom . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj20La_AdnGjzK-BXhrARVZtQRjXuSWsZvf_L3_l7iidK90lvxGDtiukPYcmKf8Q6xjpkCURzd8iwJWE4mPo3eh1BXEyh_soYh4uatflfbVgd2jnnkvjxtybTGsZ06-R4x6xSeZd3WSCe6Z/s1600-h/bananas_and_blossom.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5198968440319764258" style="WIDTH: 418px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 551px" height="475" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj20La_AdnGjzK-BXhrARVZtQRjXuSWsZvf_L3_l7iidK90lvxGDtiukPYcmKf8Q6xjpkCURzd8iwJWE4mPo3eh1BXEyh_soYh4uatflfbVgd2jnnkvjxtybTGsZ06-R4x6xSeZd3WSCe6Z/s400/bananas_and_blossom.jpg" width="367" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://maona.net/img/food/bananas_and_blossom.jpg</span><br /><br />Upon completing this project, I see that most of our relationships with the species around us are predatoristic. I wouldn’t want to be my neighbor. . . </div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-45543393523918480302008-05-07T12:52:00.000-07:002008-05-07T13:25:04.234-07:00Compendium: Chapters 22-24<strong>Compendium IV: Human Landscapes Chapters 22-24</strong><br /><br /><strong>Chapter 22: Human Evolution<br /></strong><br /><strong>22.1 Origin of Life</strong><br /><br />According to the theory of evolution, the Earth is estimated to have formed over a period of 10 billion years. The solar system has been in place for 4.6 billion years. Because of the mass of Earth, it has an atmosphere. It was composed of gases that were escaping volcanoes. As the earth cooled, the water vapors in the atmosphere rained on the earth forming the oceans. It is hypothesized that gases washed into the oceans exposed to radiation became organic compounds. Stanley Miller replicated this process in an experiment in 1953. <div><div><div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Artists’ interpretation of the beginnings of earth:</span> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjICVUtTZHYuAq1uv2AFYTqDLkqzNBOc5nv2s-_2yYhDKf0GUFsm4xzzVh2GRP4BVO4gQGPAce95vsW45R6qrrEMQUoEsQ1RRGNr1kCsekzlivu-BX8-N-O1a2KqKhECYOg2U6ocpj96YIW/s1600-h/beginning.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197732840127279554" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjICVUtTZHYuAq1uv2AFYTqDLkqzNBOc5nv2s-_2yYhDKf0GUFsm4xzzVh2GRP4BVO4gQGPAce95vsW45R6qrrEMQUoEsQ1RRGNr1kCsekzlivu-BX8-N-O1a2KqKhECYOg2U6ocpj96YIW/s400/beginning.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/high/courses/online/astro/course_documents/earth_moon/earth/geologic_time/iron_catastrophe.htm">http://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/high/courses/online/astro/course_documents/earth_moon/earth/geologic_time/iron_catastrophe.htm</a><br />The small organic molecules found each other and formed macromolecules. One hypothesis formulates that ribonucleic acid (RNA) was the only macromolecule was needed to progress toward life because RNA can behave as a substrate and an enzyme during processing. The second theory is called the protein-first hypothesis. Sidney Fox demonstrated that amino acids join together when exposed to heat. This may have occurred in puddles when the water evaporated. They may have formed polypeptides with catalytic properties that became microspheres in the water.<br />Now when two lipids are in proximity of a microsphere, they unite and form a lipid-protein membrane which is called a protocell. This heterotroph needed food, but was not able to replicate.<br />A true cell reproduces and needs DNA and enzymatic proteins. In the RNA-first theory, DNA would have replicated from the RNA. In the protein-first hypothesis, the some of the proteins evolved into enzymes that synthesized DNA from nucleotides. The DNA would have directed enzyme synthesis so all the enzymes would be present and then DNA could be replicated.<br /><br /><strong>22.2 Biological Evolution</strong><br /><br />It is reasoned that the first cells would have been the simplest, therefore they would have been prokaryotic cells (whose DNA is not in a nucleus). From there, multiple other types of cells evolved. Biological evolution is the process whereby a species from a common ancestor changes over time by adapting. In different areas, different adaptations would have occurred and this explains the diversity we have today.<br />The evolutionist, Charles Darwin observed that there were three types of evidence inferring evolution from a common ancestor:<br />Fossils: Smaller, older fossils are generally found deeper, in lower strata. Prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes are the earliest ones. Fossils with characteristics from two different species are called transitional. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Strata with fossils:</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTl2DNsb0cFu9ZJPnoNGxVxivnY4EjCYpIAzEfb1S5PBDvXFpJSldY-1so8_cVSplOxU-IFNYscU_oIF5BlwZP9UHp6nh8viC4i0bXgFGoYmaZe1N3qNu-88c36CxUajeZ-YRX1tKLs-X1/s1600-h/strata.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197732822947410338" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTl2DNsb0cFu9ZJPnoNGxVxivnY4EjCYpIAzEfb1S5PBDvXFpJSldY-1so8_cVSplOxU-IFNYscU_oIF5BlwZP9UHp6nh8viC4i0bXgFGoYmaZe1N3qNu-88c36CxUajeZ-YRX1tKLs-X1/s400/strata.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20417/20417-h/images/image158.jpg">http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20417/20417-h/images/image158.jpg</a><br /><br />Biogeography studies the placement of differing and similar plants and animals around the world. Certain species of animals can be located in one area on earth and not be found in a similar climate. This is interpreted to mean that the species evolved in that area and is therefore unique to it. Anatomical evidence shows similarities in anatomy between species which infers that they share a common ancestor. Biochemical demonstrates that all living things share similar molecules. DNA sequences also display a remarkable similarity between species.<br />Darwin described adaptation as a process whereby the stronger and healthier traits are passed on to the next generation. Weaker or less capable members were not able to survive or were not mated.<br /><br /><strong>22.3 Classification of Humans</strong><br /><br />DNA data is most currently used to trace our roots. Mitochondrial DNA is used to determine the timing of evolutionary events because it changes frequently.<br />Primates are divided into 2 groups: Prosimians, which include lemurs, and anthropoids which includes monkeys, apes, and humans. Monkeys and apes have opposable thumbs and toes. Humans have opposable thumbs. The primates also have forward focusing eyes with stereoscopic vision (depth perception) to assist in judging placement of limbs while swinging around. Humans and apes also have colored vision. Primates have larger more intricate brains. The human brain is so large, it is wrinkled to increase area. Since the mode of movement in primates is to move from limb to limb, they have a reduced reproductive rate.<br />Genomes between humans and apes are 99% similar, but many differences exist between them. Speech, hearing and smell are dissimilar and also skeletal differences enable the human to walk upright and bear more weight on our knees.<br /><br /><strong>22.4 Evolution of Hominids</strong><br /><br />An evolutionary tree traces the evolution of a group of organisms over the course of time to the original common ancestor. Included in this interpretation of evolutionary events are the approximated times of divergence from others in the group. When two groups diverge from a common ancestor the genes and proteins are nearly identical. These will develop separately and continue to digress from each other over time. Paleontologists use anatomical features when determining if a fossil is hominid. The primary hallmark is bipedal posture.<br />The hominid is believed to have started with the australopithecines, discovered in Africa in the 1920s. She is dated about 2.8 MYA (million years ago). Anatomy suggests that this hominid walked upright and had a relatively large brain (500cc).<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below is a chart of various discoveries and the interpretations of such:<br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLhLz7UJAP0vj7BrGVu8zAVJBOsy6bcbDQCO0HR1rX82dY04UFYdCPy4j8VpaWF3KNq8TVki6Tw0kD3HUoNA0hY9VQK2WGQ6AG6ecrhfUqR9W3750O6RTzLVxo5QTAyxmGhw3vVzAJiE53/s1600-h/timechart.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197732827242377650" style="CURSOR: hand" height="387" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLhLz7UJAP0vj7BrGVu8zAVJBOsy6bcbDQCO0HR1rX82dY04UFYdCPy4j8VpaWF3KNq8TVki6Tw0kD3HUoNA0hY9VQK2WGQ6AG6ecrhfUqR9W3750O6RTzLVxo5QTAyxmGhw3vVzAJiE53/s400/timechart.jpg" width="537" border="0" /></a></div><div> </div><div><a href="http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/timechart.jpeg">http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/timechart.jpeg</a><br /><br />Some debates over the lineage of some fossils indicate that it is not always clear if the find is hominid or ape. One fossil, called Sahelanthropus tchadensis, dated 7 MYA, is a skull with hominid-like teeth but an apelike braincase. Orrorin tugenensis is another fossil, dated 6 MYA, with canine teeth, but has bipedal posture.<br /><br /><strong>22.5 Evolution of Humans<br /></strong><br />Fossils with a brain size of 600cc or larger, human-like jaw and teeth configurations, and have evidence of tool use are labeled with the genus homo.<br />Homo habilis is thought to be the first ancestor to modern humans. The brain size is as large as 775cc (45% larger than the australopithecines) and the teeth indicate they may have been omnivores. Campsites with bones nearby have cut marks which indicate the use of tools. Their skulls suggest that they may have had the ability to communicate with speech also indicating that they may have hunted in groups.<br />Homo erectus is dated between 1.9 and .3 MYA. It is thought that dissimilarities in some discoveries suggests that different species have been included in this group. Homo ergaster is one such group and is thought to have migrated from Africa to Asia 1.6 - 1.9 MYA. By now, the homo erectus brain capacity is approximately 1000cc. It has a flatter face with a projected nose and is the first hominid to use fire. They wielded axes and cleavers.<br />Homo sapiens are believed to have evolved from homo erectus. Multiregional continuity hypothesis suggests that this evolution occurred simultaneously in several different geographical areas. Out-of-Africa hypothesis argues that the same result could not have occurred is all those different places. It suggests the H. sapiens evolved only in Africa and migrated to Europe and Asia only 100,000 years ago. This spawned a debate and most recently a study of DNA supports the out-of-Africa hypothesis.<br />Neandertals are dated around 200,000 years BP (before present). Their brains were larger than the homo sapiens, but the homo sapiens replaced them. They were more muscular and it is thought they needed the larger brain to control the additional muscles. They lived in caves or houses, used fire, and had a variety of tools. They also buried their dead and may have had a religion indicating they could think symbolically.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Before and after . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDcoDMTuO3TuscAXGTXNqnTRkeKlEeMVZDRY93okf8jOYBXNRPRO350weTvBbxGIBpFkfEvndGSoS5Nqrfn_kGR1PsQva4yrqgP-JLcL6Jjke2oyWOjs89ybxrn-ZMxnq27A2sdSBRIcXg/s1600-h/neanderthal_narrowweb__300x340,0.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197731564521992594" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDcoDMTuO3TuscAXGTXNqnTRkeKlEeMVZDRY93okf8jOYBXNRPRO350weTvBbxGIBpFkfEvndGSoS5Nqrfn_kGR1PsQva4yrqgP-JLcL6Jjke2oyWOjs89ybxrn-ZMxnq27A2sdSBRIcXg/s400/neanderthal_narrowweb__300x340,0.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.smh.com.au/ffximage/2007/10/26/neanderthal_narrowweb__300x340,0.jpg">http://www.smh.com.au/ffximage/2007/10/26/neanderthal_narrowweb__300x340,0.jpg</a> </div><div><br /></div><div><br />Cro-Magnons lived 45,000 to 10,000 years ago and may have caused the neandertals extinction. They may have lived together in Europe 40,000 years ago, but did not interbreed as evidenced by the differences in DNA. If this is true, then the Neandertals are cousins and not ancestors. The Cro-Magnons were the first to throw spears and make blades. The may be responsible for the extinction of mammals like the giant sloth, mammoth, sabor-toothed tiger and ox.<br />Human variation is another topic for biologists. It is suggested that adaptations occurred to accommodate the environment in which the people were living. Darker skin is more protective against UV rays. White skin produces more vitamin D. Short, bulky people adapt better to cold climates. A tribe in E. Africa have long limbs and a light build which is helpful for cooling. Perhaps other differences without a known adaptive reason, are merely due to genetic drift.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The cycle of life . . .</span><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL2nepA4ZmJjBkq5k1VDkscYTzMF6MzHcQg6B9AYhXf3y16V0VYKNYmXIMoWJxSWhhDYbsZsbCNYNjeGBYRk0CfohbuO17vDFtdTMH_ePfeZzu6wF6JEKpPEnMNIL3mre6IDYQrpy6Ws9T/s1600-h/evolution.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197731560227025266" style="WIDTH: 466px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 254px" height="220" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL2nepA4ZmJjBkq5k1VDkscYTzMF6MzHcQg6B9AYhXf3y16V0VYKNYmXIMoWJxSWhhDYbsZsbCNYNjeGBYRk0CfohbuO17vDFtdTMH_ePfeZzu6wF6JEKpPEnMNIL3mre6IDYQrpy6Ws9T/s400/evolution.jpg" width="443" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.bios.niu.edu/johns/evolution.jpg">http://www.bios.niu.edu/johns/evolution.jpg</a><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">One more. . .</span> </div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijCAp3ZRVzJ9mpcW066HPxzDpVnqDHeXAOCdy7cfE2bccewsajm2BpYeW5c9CZkUTHeQDc34gYcDUFo_bOuq14-L9ULBh3o9D-Ls4rb6O2kHAYemvAPr5zX741TZ3SXhvZ4nxmr1-v-Rnl/s1600-h/EvolutionOfMan.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197731560227025282" style="WIDTH: 454px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 265px" height="228" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijCAp3ZRVzJ9mpcW066HPxzDpVnqDHeXAOCdy7cfE2bccewsajm2BpYeW5c9CZkUTHeQDc34gYcDUFo_bOuq14-L9ULBh3o9D-Ls4rb6O2kHAYemvAPr5zX741TZ3SXhvZ4nxmr1-v-Rnl/s400/EvolutionOfMan.jpg" width="430" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.joe-ks.com/archives_apr2006/EvolutionOfMan.jpg">http://www.joe-ks.com/archives_apr2006/EvolutionOfMan.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>Chapter 23: Global Ecology and Human Interferences<br /></strong><br /><strong>23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems<br /></strong><br />Where ever organisms are found, they live in a biosphere. The biosphere, Earth, is an ecosystem wherein organisms react with other organisms and matter. Homeostasis is maintained between all creatures and substances, somewhat like the homeostasis within our bodies.<br />A biome is defined by temperature and rainfall amounts in areas of similar <a title="Community (ecology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_%28ecology%29">communities</a> of <a title="Plant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plants</a>, <a title="Animal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal">animals</a>, and <a title="Soil biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_biology">soil organisms</a> also referred to as <a title="Ecosystems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>. There is the rain forest and the desert, tropical grasslands (savannas) and temperate grasslands (prairies), The taiga – cold northern coniferous forest, and the tundra at the North Pole which has a short growing season and long winters. These are just a few.<br />Aquatic ecosystems are divided into the types of water (salt or fresh). Oceans, reefs and marshes comprise the salt water category. Lakes, rivers and ponds comprise the fresh.<br />Abiotic components are without life. Biotic components are living things and they are categorized according to what they eat. Autotrophs eat abiotic substances and use an outside energy source to create organic matter. Plants and algae are the major photosynthesizers on land.<br />Heterotrophs eat biotic components. They are herbivores – plant diet, carnivores – animal diet, and omnivores – plant and animal diet. Detritus feeders are decomposers that feed on dead organic matter. Every part has a niche or role in the ecosystem. </div><div><br /><strong>23.2 Energy Flow</strong> </div><div><br />Energy flow and chemical cycling is the process whereby producers derive energy from the sun and take in inorganic nutrients and begin chemical cycling. After photosynthesis, they produce organic matter for themselves and the consumers. The energy flow is passed as nutrients which are converted to heat and dissipates back into the biosphere. Even undigested nutrients eliminated as waste is digested by the detritus feeders and returned to the cycle as water and carbon dioxide. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below is a picture depicting the energy flow of a trophic food web:</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglsOf9EwSqdIQRtyYsPYznbUgNgSedUhVKQg2l_JYlzPt7kLAsVSU1cIA6TAmRqiFlMhrm5OaKikb6al9sNJaY5lm49HTK_ARAqzdvetUPI5x7UB6xmNSt4dLxliVviCFGQFNZbblAhFO9/s1600-h/Food_Web3.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197731551637090658" style="WIDTH: 464px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 486px" height="446" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglsOf9EwSqdIQRtyYsPYznbUgNgSedUhVKQg2l_JYlzPt7kLAsVSU1cIA6TAmRqiFlMhrm5OaKikb6al9sNJaY5lm49HTK_ARAqzdvetUPI5x7UB6xmNSt4dLxliVviCFGQFNZbblAhFO9/s400/Food_Web3.gif" width="437" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.absc.usgs.gov/research/seabird_foragefish/marinehabitat/images/Food_Web3.gif">http://www.absc.usgs.gov/research/seabird_foragefish/marinehabitat/images/Food_Web3.gif</a> </span><br />Trophic (feeding) relationships are demonstrated by the levels in which they are placed. The size of the organic matter does not necessarily correlate with the size of it’s contribution. Dead, organic matter from the detrital food web is a rich source of energy.<br />Only 10% of energy is passed on from one level to the next. That explains why there are fewer carnivores in each food web. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Picture depicting ecological pyramid:</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggNQvGutRwHf0Bi4YcWtTb27NA0usCL8bCVysipPk9BJ2LhvVmKgIm6tHXo3xLr7I3rhAvaDM6tRvsyPLPtJROEm1DbQGQHTRHvV9X6XIEs4fI_lIMSlV9mYLwpZzJZRq2acT5QYPMh-lY/s1600-h/ecological+pyramid.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197729971089125714" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggNQvGutRwHf0Bi4YcWtTb27NA0usCL8bCVysipPk9BJ2LhvVmKgIm6tHXo3xLr7I3rhAvaDM6tRvsyPLPtJROEm1DbQGQHTRHvV9X6XIEs4fI_lIMSlV9mYLwpZzJZRq2acT5QYPMh-lY/s400/ecological+pyramid.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><a href="http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1656/SK220_2_003i.jpg">http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1656/SK220_2_003i.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>23.3 Global Biogeochemical Cycles</strong><br /><br />The Water Cycle – the sun heats up bodies of water causing evaporation. The evaporated water rises to form clouds and rains down on earth. Water runs off the terrain back into the bodies of water and some of the water is absorbed into the ground to become an aquifer. Humans interfere with the water cycle by 1) using water from the aquifers 2) cover terrain with buildings and roads eliminating absorption of rain into the soil and 3) add pollutants to water. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The water cycle:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZaoAZmtsaudxtNLc8COAnpHXfzPWaWLZEL2NTSkMW55fSMzpjQF8_IrkedGmBUy-Oxu1E52VvJdUp1ISX5tGxfYk07sMvfhz6N6Rzw4g3t3StvgJKZ1T99mxTLgDcQyJaF6T-21sPVA4v/s1600-h/WaterCycle-optimized.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197729966794158402" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZaoAZmtsaudxtNLc8COAnpHXfzPWaWLZEL2NTSkMW55fSMzpjQF8_IrkedGmBUy-Oxu1E52VvJdUp1ISX5tGxfYk07sMvfhz6N6Rzw4g3t3StvgJKZ1T99mxTLgDcQyJaF6T-21sPVA4v/s400/WaterCycle-optimized.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/images/ocp2003/WaterCycle-optimized.jpg">http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/images/ocp2003/WaterCycle-optimized.jpg</a><br />The Carbon Cycle – the CO2 in the atmosphere is where carbon is exchanged. Plants take up carbon dioxide from the air and incorporate is into nutrients for the other webs. It is then returned to air as carbon dioxide and the cycle repeats itself. In aquatic systems, CO2 combines with water to form a bicarbonate ion. Algae uses this and produces food for themselves and other webs. In turn, respiration gives off carbon dioxide which becomes the bicarbonate ion and the cycle repeats itself. Organic carbon is present in the living and dead organisms in the reservoirs of the world. Decomposition contributes CO2 to the atmosphere as well.<br />The destruction of forests and burning of fossil fuels is disturbing the equilibrium in transfer rates of CO2. The gasses humans are producing (CO2 andothers) are thought to be producing a “greenhouse effect” which in turn is warming the planet unnaturally. Predictions of a major disruption in temperature and flooding and droughts. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Carbon Cycle:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzMW2XIq9YACkZEFFXl7kTaIKssuAxgrnT3rS6-PN23AaE3SMN-WuPGCTPL0raGJ5wf9FQnP5BniDK56IjZKjEiDj7tXDvJ32fme_Vloml8eSpBL1724PU-rCV2mmXL_a99ObQCEEXB6Dd/s1600-h/carbon_cycle_NASA.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197729962499191090" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzMW2XIq9YACkZEFFXl7kTaIKssuAxgrnT3rS6-PN23AaE3SMN-WuPGCTPL0raGJ5wf9FQnP5BniDK56IjZKjEiDj7tXDvJ32fme_Vloml8eSpBL1724PU-rCV2mmXL_a99ObQCEEXB6Dd/s400/carbon_cycle_NASA.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/earth_system/carbon_cycle_NASA.jpg</span><br />The Nitrogen Cycle – makes up 78% of the atmosphere. It is not used by plants and is perceived as a limiter of plant growth. Nitrogen is converted to ammonium and is then utilized by plants. Some bacteria are able to affix nitrogen to hydrogen to form ammonium thereby making it available to plants to form proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen combined with oxygen forms nitrates and is also utilized by plants. This reaction occurs when atmospheric phenomenons produce enough energy. Cosmic radiation, meteor trails and lightning are examples of these. This is called nitrification.<br />Bacteria is once again responsible for converting nitrate back to nitrogen gas and back into the atmosphere. Humans alter the transfer rates of nitrogen by producing fertilizers. The runoff causes overgrowth of algae in lakes which, in turn, burns up too much oxygen and kills fish. Fossil fuels also contribute nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxides which combine with water vapor to produce “acid rain”. This corrodes marble, metal and stonework and kills natural vegetation.<br />The Phosphorus Cycle – used by plants and will become part of a variety of molecules including phospholipids, DNA and RNA, and ATP. Phosphorus is trapped in oceanic sediments and will deposit on land after an upheaval. Weathering of rocks deposits it into the soil and becomes available to plants. Animals eat the plants and the phosphorus becomes incorporated into bones, teeth, and shells. Decay causes the phosphate ions to become available to producers again. Phosphorus is not found in the air, so this is a sedimentary cycle. Human beings mine phosphate for use in fertilizer and detergents. This results in cultural eutrophication (overenrichment) of waterways. Biological magnification is the overconsumption or absorption of substances resulting accumulation of higher levels not normally attained. PCP and DDT have been found in breast milk, we are the final consumers. Our seas have been exploited for 50 years resulting in alarming decline of some species of marine life.<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Phosphorus Cycle</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzf_-wcftrJN_3yzquwfpzT_qjthveTJNjoSqeCVKURS8kVr34_542VkHskeHlHN2B3xOrGgVW_VR2ZioTfrDkGclkVahsqyaEPXu8BJumSp5VbaNbmdPMnw8KRo6y95_cjSEmi5YMflbn/s1600-h/phosphorus.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197729958204223778" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzf_-wcftrJN_3yzquwfpzT_qjthveTJNjoSqeCVKURS8kVr34_542VkHskeHlHN2B3xOrGgVW_VR2ZioTfrDkGclkVahsqyaEPXu8BJumSp5VbaNbmdPMnw8KRo6y95_cjSEmi5YMflbn/s400/phosphorus.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://vincejtremante.tripod.com/images/phosphorus.jpg">http://vincejtremante.tripod.com/images/phosphorus.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>Chapter 24: Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation</strong><br /><br /><strong>24.1 Human Population Growth</strong><br /><br />The human population is experiencing exponential growth. This began after 1750 and began to steeply increase in less-developed countries (LDC’s) around 1950. It is expected that the world population will increase 78 million annually. The growth rate of a population is determined by the difference between deaths and births per 1,000 people per year. It is currently at 1.2% globally. The carrying capacity is the maximum amount of population that the environment can support. We don’t know what the Earth’s capacity is for the human population. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Population growth by region:</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7Em1Aot-UEMmmnCPu-dASSSG2KGTEvctZ0Dd1C9I3yNQTWdCg5SHNKhcWua97nt0daxR2SuedS3pVsCyxVTkmG1dd73yS_FallUrwrEeYAjvnNoh4efCSpH0ouOfL013BMIxWRV9M3hhB/s1600-h/pop-growth-chart-map-sm.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197728789973119250" style="CURSOR: hand" height="273" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7Em1Aot-UEMmmnCPu-dASSSG2KGTEvctZ0Dd1C9I3yNQTWdCg5SHNKhcWua97nt0daxR2SuedS3pVsCyxVTkmG1dd73yS_FallUrwrEeYAjvnNoh4efCSpH0ouOfL013BMIxWRV9M3hhB/s400/pop-growth-chart-map-sm.gif" width="499" border="0" /></a></div><div><a href="http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/images/final-images/g-pop-growth-chart-map-sm.gif">http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/images/final-images/g-pop-growth-chart-map-sm.gif</a> </div><div><br />More developed countries (MDC’s) have a lower growth rate than the LDC’s. MDC’s have a better quality of living. Much of the LDC populations live in poverty. As a whole the MDC’s growth rate is 0.1%, the US is 0.6%. The LDC’s growth rate is 1.6%, but some countries still average higher rates where women are having more than 5 children each. The LDC’s population may increase from 5 billion to 8 billion by 2050. Asia has 56% of the world’s population and only 31% farmable land. Of the 15 most polluted cities in the world, 12 are in Asia. Because of the large percentage of women entering their reproductive years in LDC’s, they are most certainly going to grow in population even if they produced only 2 children per household.<br /><br /><strong>24.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution</strong><br /><br />Resources are described as nonrenewable (land, fossil fuels, and minerals), or renewable (water, solar or wind energy, plants, and animals). As humans utilize resources, pollution occurs. The greater the population, the more pollution is produced.<br />Land is a limited resource. Forty percent of the population live by the coast. Many of the naturally occurring habitats for wildlife are destroyed from this choice. We have filled in wetlands to use for our own habitation to the detriment of many types of animals.<br />Overgrazing and foraging causes desertification of semiarid lands. Deforestation is the removal of trees for settling or building materials. This can also lead to desertification. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Example of deforestation</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3qgQ3VvutEaKWvlz6nANbMWhS4eFdzvw8-_eiQYcgtTXorpcKWd9S8bi-nVL06uA0iOo4sHvuDgq9pz03AGy0jT65IBB2tCIVP39LZNgfGPJmaIZgSCyqHB36iVsbwSUVr_ytae5W7M7D/s1600-h/deforestation.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197728785678151938" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3qgQ3VvutEaKWvlz6nANbMWhS4eFdzvw8-_eiQYcgtTXorpcKWd9S8bi-nVL06uA0iOo4sHvuDgq9pz03AGy0jT65IBB2tCIVP39LZNgfGPJmaIZgSCyqHB36iVsbwSUVr_ytae5W7M7D/s400/deforestation.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.sadashivan.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderpictures/deforestation.jpg </span><br />Water is considered to be renewable, but is scarce in some areas. Where water is available, is should be drinkable, but is impure in some areas. Seventy percent of all clean freshwater is used to irrigate crops. in the MDC’s, more water is used for flushing toilets, bathing, and lawns, than for drinking.<br />Dams provide water and electricity, but prevent rivers from running as they used to. Drawbacks are seepage and evaporation, increased salinity downstream, and the filling of the reservoir with sediment. People have been removing water from the aquifers (underground stores of water). The High Plains Aquifer stretches from South Dakota to Texas, and has been reduced by more than half because of groundwater pumping. This causes subsidence, settling of the soil, which may produce sink holes. Saltwater may back into streams and aquifers reducing the supply of freshwater. There are technologies available to reduce the demand of freshwater, but they are seldom used.<br />The food supply has expanded to accommodate the growing population, but some harmful methods have been implemented. Some farmers only plant one crop. This makes it more vulnerable to devastation by one parasite. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides have polluted groundwater and beneficial soil organisms. Irrigation methods have reduced the aquifers. Farmers also use a lot of fossil fuels to accomplish their tasks.<br />Soil loss and degradation are problems facing farmers. Simply, the rows utilized to accommodate tractors has caused the US and Canada to have the highest rates of soil erosion in the world. The accumulation of minerals in the soil from irrigation practices, has rendered the land unsuitable for growing crops. Scientists developed wheat and rice varieties for the LDC’s, which are causing the same issues over there. Genetic engineering is another approach to developing hardy and resistant crops. The consequences of these are not fully understood. Domestic livestock is a huge consumer of resources and produces a lot of pollution as well.<br />Energy is renewable and nonrenewable. Nuclear power provides 6% of the world’s energy supply. Disposal of waste is an issue, because it is radioactive. Fossil fuels provide 75% of the energy supply. The US is only 5% of the world’s population, but uses half of this resource. This is best explained by this statement: one person in the US uses as much energy in one day as a person in an LDC uses in a year. The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which is theorized to contribute to a global warming trend. This continues to be a debatable point, even in scientific circles. Renewable resources are growing in availability. Hydropower is produced from dams and is not without problems as mentioned earlier. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Unknown Dam</span></div><div> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgajeFI1GOTiTMvKC0t1Ys7sfU8FO2IN_pnSD5zgM5UxsTpdwRwWLnzqaOFJIrqQ6UlnmMzuJe0bIuD5nCgCs-E0i3UYr7MOfqBncKMulacLH9d-eCaViMjyINvw-JENW2hHvJ3GV9YlJpW/s1600-h/hydropower.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197728785678151922" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgajeFI1GOTiTMvKC0t1Ys7sfU8FO2IN_pnSD5zgM5UxsTpdwRwWLnzqaOFJIrqQ6UlnmMzuJe0bIuD5nCgCs-E0i3UYr7MOfqBncKMulacLH9d-eCaViMjyINvw-JENW2hHvJ3GV9YlJpW/s400/hydropower.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.osti.gov/RETIRED/hyp/images/06595.jpg">http://www.osti.gov/RETIRED/hyp/images/06595.jpg</a> </div><div><br />Smaller dams with less output and less environmental impact may be the answer. Geothermal energy is emitted from underground naturally-occurring radiatioin that heats rocks which are in contact with water. Steam and hot water are produced and can be used to run steam-driven turbogenerators.<br />The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs in an area called the Ring of Fire. This area rims the Pacific Ocean.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAaEfqsZC4WzBEvH77snwv4yyvxgSzx_0p_npkfzbLhLZ0j_MbgGxdLUaJuJI_oWTSqhZctGgvW4t8aOpQALtBUwFS_h360C57Zv6C9lnetreo5R-HpZJ4rD13FeL5BlSNqM_QzxLAZ_ia/s1600-h/RINGOFFIRE1.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197728781383184610" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAaEfqsZC4WzBEvH77snwv4yyvxgSzx_0p_npkfzbLhLZ0j_MbgGxdLUaJuJI_oWTSqhZctGgvW4t8aOpQALtBUwFS_h360C57Zv6C9lnetreo5R-HpZJ4rD13FeL5BlSNqM_QzxLAZ_ia/s400/RINGOFFIRE1.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html </span><br />Wind and solar power are viable energy producing options. Hydrogen fuel cells are very promising developments and give off water as a byproduct. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Solar plant:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH_PR0oxxAflfyDk8P3nPoYTIJceGTLCe0DR4ZylEkH8gKwwQpuatFzg2dBETeIfdDBy5UyiGFJBnbVqM5vrqIkFBkdMp2m3KA-AIrG_4SlpEJFy-h0Zg2LEnlcsWSzTaGLq3gDam2mL65/s1600-h/Solar%2520Field1.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197727007561691346" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH_PR0oxxAflfyDk8P3nPoYTIJceGTLCe0DR4ZylEkH8gKwwQpuatFzg2dBETeIfdDBy5UyiGFJBnbVqM5vrqIkFBkdMp2m3KA-AIrG_4SlpEJFy-h0Zg2LEnlcsWSzTaGLq3gDam2mL65/s400/Solar%2520Field1.jpg" border="0" /></a> </div><div><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.energywhiz.com/9-12/gallery/site01/Solar%20Field1.jpg">http://www.energywhiz.com/9-12/gallery/site01/Solar%20Field1.jpg</a> </span></div><div><span style="color:#3333ff;"><br /></span>The mining of minerals causes damage to the area of mining and heavy metals are dangerous to our health. These wastes build up in our environment as well. Some of these disrupt our endocrine systems. Could this be why so many people have Thyroid disorders? Chloroflourocarbons were instrumental in the thinning of our ozone and since their ban, the ozone is predicted to recover by 2050. Because pollution is absorbed along the food-chain, contaminants have been found in human breast milk.<br /><br /><strong>24.3 Biodiversity<br /></strong><br />Biodiversity refers to the variety of species in a given area. Loss of habitat can cause a species to become extinct. It’s possible that all coral reefs will disappear in the next 40 years. Species unnaturally introduced into an area can become invasive and crowd the natural wildlife out of their existence. Pollution produces acid deposition, global warming, ozone depletion, and the deposition of synthetic organic chemicals. Overexploitation for obvious reasons, reduces resources and/or wildlife and can leave an area decimated and unlivable. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Biodiversity<br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlZKNYNSH6ivpSYsXgOOL41fU8cP9sXD1zXa8auZtPsoHCIqWeTxupvgawp6j241PPoJd2-iHT_EmlZJHDywSAF0Rtmc3XCAarNPBalO34glLfyl-8WKm6vXP1JFSyNz_wydb0TRYUhG1O/s1600-h/biodiversity.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197727003266724034" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlZKNYNSH6ivpSYsXgOOL41fU8cP9sXD1zXa8auZtPsoHCIqWeTxupvgawp6j241PPoJd2-iHT_EmlZJHDywSAF0Rtmc3XCAarNPBalO34glLfyl-8WKm6vXP1JFSyNz_wydb0TRYUhG1O/s400/biodiversity.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://biodiversityllc.com/images/earth.jpg">http://biodiversityllc.com/images/earth.jpg</a></span> </div><div><br />Biodiversity is valued for various reasons. Three main reasons for maintaining biodiversity are<br />Medicinal Value: Biota are the sources of most prescription drugs. It is surprising where these miracle cures are found. Flowers in Madagascar have increased the survival rate of leukemia from 10% to 90% in children. Similar tales are abundant. In agriculture, natural predators are being used to combat viruses and pests. Maintaining populations of species for consumption is also to our benefit. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Rosy Periwinkle, surprising lifesaver</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9vqWDf-Ha4gCdA8CD05AjstJOnhYynPk2yOe6Dq7oUFhWn3JnyEKdCoi5g2RMVH4jkBtKX0m4qR3cVWciapjTjlO4dvRe9e1nBvgn80FWhpEmBaf25WJ6lY_dsG6ephewIsEOHvP0qd-x/s1600-h/rosy.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197726998971756722" style="CURSOR: hand" height="166" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9vqWDf-Ha4gCdA8CD05AjstJOnhYynPk2yOe6Dq7oUFhWn3JnyEKdCoi5g2RMVH4jkBtKX0m4qR3cVWciapjTjlO4dvRe9e1nBvgn80FWhpEmBaf25WJ6lY_dsG6ephewIsEOHvP0qd-x/s400/rosy.jpg" width="215" border="0" /></a></div><div><a href="http://www.livingrainforest.org/lib/img/articles/md/7.jpg">http://www.livingrainforest.org/lib/img/articles/md/7.jpg</a> </div><div><br />Partially treating sewage and allowing decomposers to finish the job benefits our environment. Also, biological communities can also remove heavy metals and pesticides and save $50,000 per 2.47 acres. Forests and other ecosystems slowly release water back into rivers reducing the occurrence of flooding. These also prevent soil erosion. Biogeochemical cycles that occur naturally keep vital elements and energy in balance.<br /><br /><strong>24.4 Working Toward and Sustainable Society<br /></strong><br />The population growth of the LDC’s and the consumption of the MDC’s both need adjustments if we are to achieve a sustainable society. New innovations and foresight must be embraced and each person must make lifestyle changes to support these choices. If we learn from the natural systems in place, we will use renewable resources. In urban areas, we should preserve our topsoils, the richest in nutrients. Composting, multi-use farming, natural pest control, planting of multi-purpose trees, maintaining and restoring our wetlands, using renewable energy and buying locally will all impact our environment positively. In the city, we need to incorporate green belts and use roof tops for gardening as well. Using solar or geothermal energy and utilizing old, run-down areas in the city before building outward would also benefit the environment.</div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Chicago Rooftop</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHzSB7iTQdAk82SF1a1GbYUDjz9iRm98vu2dgXDXxm_bg3TsFqVA1uVSscDHNpeIjY7XFUXCvUWSLWc2b4dp6KoHnNnZ4UJflDEclLef4tq3akdsoxx52Zz3eeyb75kbOcxx0eLN1PFnhH/s1600-h/chicago-roof.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5197726998971756706" style="CURSOR: hand" height="346" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHzSB7iTQdAk82SF1a1GbYUDjz9iRm98vu2dgXDXxm_bg3TsFqVA1uVSscDHNpeIjY7XFUXCvUWSLWc2b4dp6KoHnNnZ4UJflDEclLef4tq3akdsoxx52Zz3eeyb75kbOcxx0eLN1PFnhH/s400/chicago-roof.jpg" width="456" border="0" /></a></div><div><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.planetizen.com/files/chicago-roof.jpg">http://www.planetizen.com/files/chicago-roof.jpg</a> </span></div><div><span style="color:#3333ff;"><br /></span>We need to assess what it is we value in order to prioritize our commitments and move forward. </div></div></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-11812512597763532902008-04-20T20:39:00.000-07:002008-04-20T20:58:37.033-07:00LIST OF TEN SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING FETAL DEVELOPMENT<br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">1.</span> <strong>Day 2</strong> – Fertilization. This is significant because without this, there would be no baby.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Fertilization:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc6qfgBRvHl0s_T0eyIV1r7_MiGEb45cE9021cGkUcXZrht-m6BV8Mcey6hrVP9Ltoup8POzgnjp7-lr2UaP0IiUdt-2BmEn-3EZgz0KqO0ufEk_cB6CJ3xJTVNiMTR1GMm209tzwHArhb/s1600-h/fertilize.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191540955566468386" style="CURSOR: hand" height="215" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc6qfgBRvHl0s_T0eyIV1r7_MiGEb45cE9021cGkUcXZrht-m6BV8Mcey6hrVP9Ltoup8POzgnjp7-lr2UaP0IiUdt-2BmEn-3EZgz0KqO0ufEk_cB6CJ3xJTVNiMTR1GMm209tzwHArhb/s400/fertilize.jpg" width="207" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/fetaldevelopment.html" target="_top">www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/fetaldevelopment.html</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">2.</span> <strong>4th week</strong> - heart is beating. For many centuries, the beating heart was used to establish whether or not someone was alive. To this day, we still assess that for one of the signs of life.<br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">3.</span> <strong>1 ½ months</strong> – brain waves can be measured with EEG. Heart chambers and valves are formed. I thought this was significant because it meant heart and mind are beginning to function. Sort of analogous to the makeup of all that is human, thinking and feeling beings. I did not know I was investigating an area of debate between various groups on the topic of abortion and the fundamental question of when does life begin. Seems to me this little person is alive. We were all there once.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">3 month old fetus:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwkegOID7iMCLhbGTD7Pt2B5xmJJYdkJSI03kjxqD2kPrpk14c3IUXUAHx2ruC7o-6iRfuzAYybfwTL2QcsMvJ5btTxe6e6a-T9DBROx-KhmGlUBKFOAkVIKgVYeEBn3S_extKt0Ph3mk4/s1600-h/6+weeks.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191540959861435714" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwkegOID7iMCLhbGTD7Pt2B5xmJJYdkJSI03kjxqD2kPrpk14c3IUXUAHx2ruC7o-6iRfuzAYybfwTL2QcsMvJ5btTxe6e6a-T9DBROx-KhmGlUBKFOAkVIKgVYeEBn3S_extKt0Ph3mk4/s400/6+weeks.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch03/fetus.mhtml">http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch03/fetus.mhtml</a> </span><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><br /></span><span style="color:#33cc00;">4.</span> <strong>Week 9</strong> - Basic brain structure of the fetus is complete. Again, the ability to think and reason is one of the things that sets us apart from other species. I realize this says “basic brain structure”, but it also means the potential is there.<br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">5.</span> <strong>3 months</strong> - capable of hearing. I think that some sounds can be heard through the womb and this is important to recognise. Maybe some sounds will agitate the baby.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgmqSddVgPyMu29zHe91fwAjwqalZK4QovtH5WxOpRf8UCmk4OD-qaobtj0MfNuGjyKLB92NMjd0x9H-Mw1F7ug_zWBOaPUWAgKCdwuJfFV7RyjMLuI7rGuvK7OcAvJbK9gKsgQNHa9PPo/s1600-h/5+months.jpg"></a><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLUFOKKX7AYj75ZtQi-zefrWFfl-PKmQbiqNmW4dhsWU-OL-GrxtWWM32s2Ld-0qnN5qgsNNYGrBS-0CbXAg4q1di9tGqT3v16DZqOdkVWBgAcudDRJjJqeBZo_O_e1f8dE7aZingCNMhS/s1600-h/3+month.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191540959861435698" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLUFOKKX7AYj75ZtQi-zefrWFfl-PKmQbiqNmW4dhsWU-OL-GrxtWWM32s2Ld-0qnN5qgsNNYGrBS-0CbXAg4q1di9tGqT3v16DZqOdkVWBgAcudDRJjJqeBZo_O_e1f8dE7aZingCNMhS/s400/3+month.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://www.laserprofessor.com/pimages/Mo3baby.jpg">http://www.laserprofessor.com/pimages/Mo3baby.jpg</a><br /><br /><br />Now we can share music. Time to put on the headphones.<br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7zQ8cL3I8B1aMZUaPpRLzGiVW5iJecFM4K6sWvzPz7RdzLsIZ8qrSn-1z4kAkWFzCu6ABR4iNIU3v8GtekqONSwQwQK366VoSRcbLK3YN_ZWGSJIgHvl3OgrtYRqsBYcMvtNW5g3wcjy-/s1600-h/headphones.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191540964156403026" style="CURSOR: hand" height="361" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7zQ8cL3I8B1aMZUaPpRLzGiVW5iJecFM4K6sWvzPz7RdzLsIZ8qrSn-1z4kAkWFzCu6ABR4iNIU3v8GtekqONSwQwQK366VoSRcbLK3YN_ZWGSJIgHvl3OgrtYRqsBYcMvtNW5g3wcjy-/s400/headphones.gif" width="347" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://www.sciam.com/media/inline/FBB1ABAE-E7F2-99DF-3C2FEE4066F9308B_1.gif">http://www.sciam.com/media/inline/FBB1ABAE-E7F2-99DF-3C2FEE4066F9308B_1.gif</a><br /><br />Also sex organs can be detected. This is significant because we can pick a name and paint the walls of the nursery, if the sonographer is competent and the baby is cooperative.<br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">6.</span> <strong>4 months:</strong> babies sucking thumbs. This is important because the fetus can self-comfort. I wonder if this is an accident that the thumb touched the mouth and the instinct to suckle drew the thumb in or it becomes a conscious action.<br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">7.</span> <strong>5 months:</strong> baby can kick hard enough for mom to feel. The pic below is actually a five month fetus sucking his thumb. An amazing photo. I think that feeling the baby moving inside your own womb is an amazing experience and significant because you become aware of this lively, purposeful baby. Each one of my kids had different types of movements which was consistent with their personalities.<br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">5 month old fetus:</span><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191538636284128514" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgmqSddVgPyMu29zHe91fwAjwqalZK4QovtH5WxOpRf8UCmk4OD-qaobtj0MfNuGjyKLB92NMjd0x9H-Mw1F7ug_zWBOaPUWAgKCdwuJfFV7RyjMLuI7rGuvK7OcAvJbK9gKsgQNHa9PPo/s400/5+months.jpg" border="0" /><br /><a href="http://survivors.la/images/19-weeks.jpg">http://survivors.la/images/19-weeks.jpg</a><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">8.</span> <strong>7 months</strong> – taste buds have developed. I personally like that my taste buds work and think this is a very important and vital function.<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Yummmm . . .</span><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLESrLrzkAx0EuhkmiWFgF-B9UXzNoFsQNUB5yQP3rU9IJ0doMfV9-6588vX5f9cpweyMABgULXp9MAtQ16B91Qs33BJ5X_oo7aXiwmg7Q9IoBCYEl2QTafzZxVwOtEUhRRBw1XoBHQF2p/s1600-h/chocolate.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191538631989161202" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLESrLrzkAx0EuhkmiWFgF-B9UXzNoFsQNUB5yQP3rU9IJ0doMfV9-6588vX5f9cpweyMABgULXp9MAtQ16B91Qs33BJ5X_oo7aXiwmg7Q9IoBCYEl2QTafzZxVwOtEUhRRBw1XoBHQF2p/s400/chocolate.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://livingwithcfs.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/chocolate.jpg">http://livingwithcfs.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/chocolate.jpg</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">9.</span> <strong>8 months</strong> – most organs are fully developed except for the lungs. This means that the baby is almost ready. The last month will be the longest.<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Eight month fetus:</span><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6Cr2bO2c0R_Vn7YuwoHW8m3MHlBY-YCoqNd25PHKxd6isRPiFRuD7IdlMPKK3S4v4X3co81lrCsmqdeg6SajH1CeZZh1Vl9m_wKbmWzUoMdMeCwpPc6U_gM8mqCEetWJmP0KxYs7qWhun/s1600-h/8+months.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191538631989161186" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6Cr2bO2c0R_Vn7YuwoHW8m3MHlBY-YCoqNd25PHKxd6isRPiFRuD7IdlMPKK3S4v4X3co81lrCsmqdeg6SajH1CeZZh1Vl9m_wKbmWzUoMdMeCwpPc6U_gM8mqCEetWJmP0KxYs7qWhun/s400/8+months.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.babycenter.com/fetal-development-images-36-weeks">http://www.babycenter.com/fetal-development-images-36-weeks</a><br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">10.</span> <strong>9 months</strong> – now fully developed and can survive outside of mom’s body. The baby will drop down and if normally positioned, the head will rest on the cervix, ready for delivery. The most anticipated event in the world! All systems are go and hopefully all will go well.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The fruit of our labor:</span><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191538954111708434" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikkgOiEl1SmFmqJOjmFLBdkn7c_I_TbRLVtRC7JXN9dQro5QRD8JonIhfBJbxS2YXPHmkzY_uiGdFAMRQNdPEbBjn8iKCTAAfavUPpY3Tyz-gfQ0KzABZTfJM3vO03RgARVdVkR3NXBP50/s400/newbornLLS01.jpg" border="0" /><br /><a href="http://www.linnealenkus.com/image/newbornLLS01.jpg">http://www.linnealenkus.com/image/newbornLLS01.jpg</a>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-63928279475254668522008-04-19T18:30:00.000-07:002008-04-19T19:20:49.219-07:00Unit IV Compendium<span style="font-size:180%;">Compendium Unit IV<br /></span><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Chapters 16-17</strong></span> <div><div><div><div><div><strong></strong> </div><div><strong>16.1 Human Life Cycle<br /></strong><br />Human reproduction is possible when a person completes puberty. In girls, that is reached at age 11-13 and boys at 14-16 years of age. To follow are the different functions of organs for each sex:<br />Male: Produce sperm Female: Produce eggs<br />Nurture sperm Transport egg to uterus<br />Penis delivers sperm into vagina Vagina receives sperm and provides conduit to egg<br />Testes produce sex hormones Uterus provides locale for fetal development<br />Vagina is pathway for delivery<br />Ovaries produce sex hormones<br />There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is duplication from one cell dividing producing two cells each containing all 46 chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in the testes and ovaries of the reproductive organs. Each sperm and egg cell produces contain only 23 chromosomes so that when united, the zygote will have all 46 chromosomes.<br /><br /><strong>16.2 Male Reproductive System</strong><br /><br />The testes (gonads) are the primary sex organs of the male reproductive system. The testes produce sperm and sex hormones. The scrotum will regulate the temperature of the testes by raising or lowering the testes from the body. Too warm and the sperm will not be viable. The sperm than mature and are stored in the epididymides. The sperm then leave the epididymides and can be stored in the vas deferens or transported onward. After entering the ejaculatoroy duct, nutrients and semen are contributed by the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"></span></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Male reproductive anatomy:</span></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6XxIS7JVV2OOxghI8XNfuZ2LI-WXTcMw5hqOCHr6-5msIGJwitzdqmap6MoY93BLKiIccMYsNNtlQRze3iA0xQWVQxMA6GoLZ_2LaEAO499UmBc1KYIte5Cr2y8mlorTpiK4KnbLjRsBW/s1600-h/male.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191143250184793250" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6XxIS7JVV2OOxghI8XNfuZ2LI-WXTcMw5hqOCHr6-5msIGJwitzdqmap6MoY93BLKiIccMYsNNtlQRze3iA0xQWVQxMA6GoLZ_2LaEAO499UmBc1KYIte5Cr2y8mlorTpiK4KnbLjRsBW/s400/male.bmp" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><a href="http://www.drstandley.com/bodysystems_malerepro.shtml">www.drstandley.com/bodysystems_malerepro.shtml</a> </div><br /><div>I will not be commenting on the act of intercourse, since this is a public internet site. There may be greater than 400 million sperm in 3.5 mL of semen.<br />The Seminiferous Tubules are the locations of sperm production. It takes 74 days for sperm to develop. Mature sperm have 3 parts, head, middle piece, and tail. The head is covered by acrosome, which contains an enzyme to penetrate the egg. The middle piece has mitochondria which provides energy for movement. The tail flagellates to propel the sperm. The interstitial cells in the testes produce the sex hormones. The hypothalamus in the brain produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) that stimulates the anterior pituitary to release gonadotropic hormones, both follicle stimulating (stimulates sperm production) and luteinizing hormones (stimulates testosterone production). Testosterone maintains normal development and functioning of the sexual organs. It also gives males some of their male traits, such as greater muscle mass, lower voices, adam’s apple, broader shoulders and greater height.<br /><br /><strong>16.3 Female Reproductive System</strong> </div><br /><div>Ovaries are the female gonads. The produce eggs, estrogen and progesterone. The ovaries are located at one end of the fallopian tubes. They are not connected. The fallopian tubes have fimbriae (projections that sweep over the ovaries) and cilia which “brush” the eggs after they emerge from the ovaries in the direction of the uterus.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiufmNxjq845LzFwfkp8RAU_emQuW-AT9-DCF1IKZxnDpOVeeWd5N8olT5CeNlaJWGk7V4vcy56Oqyjuaebt2Eu0HhvTxbaYTsXyOqugx-DbhnU9anU8ECMkCTFYz9rwiownK-eAzxt-4Fx/s1600-h/female.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191143250184793234" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiufmNxjq845LzFwfkp8RAU_emQuW-AT9-DCF1IKZxnDpOVeeWd5N8olT5CeNlaJWGk7V4vcy56Oqyjuaebt2Eu0HhvTxbaYTsXyOqugx-DbhnU9anU8ECMkCTFYz9rwiownK-eAzxt-4Fx/s400/female.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><a href="http://encarta.msn.com/media_461545224_761560628_-1_1/female_reproductive_system.html" target="_top">encarta.msn.com/media_461545224_761560628_-1_...</a> </div><br /><div>An egg is only viable for 6-24 hours until fertilization occurs. Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tube. The developing fetus (zygote, at this stage) arrives and implantation occurs in the thickened uterine lining. The uterus prior to emplantation is approx. 5 cm wide and can stretch to over 30cm wide when pregnant. The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium comprised of two layers, the basal laer and the functional layer. The cervix is at the base of the uterus and leads to the vaginal canal.</div><br /><div></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisebf5yG_nijVydTUhISBpaHCJo51yEIZeJ019N79w-DcedWox9-GwRRjNHg5Oe3l0b2g7dX1JPYLtPs5HBDc8bLdLe02OZBMJqm0q-PTip6Lf7dWqcfD0ClhNoHjcWYAzRW_76bU8rkbP/s1600-h/implantation.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191144298156813490" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisebf5yG_nijVydTUhISBpaHCJo51yEIZeJ019N79w-DcedWox9-GwRRjNHg5Oe3l0b2g7dX1JPYLtPs5HBDc8bLdLe02OZBMJqm0q-PTip6Lf7dWqcfD0ClhNoHjcWYAzRW_76bU8rkbP/s400/implantation.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.choicetolivewith.com/.../implantation.jpg">www.choicetolivewith.com/.../implantation.jpg</a> </div><br /><div>The external genitalia is collectively called vulva. The outermost folds are called labia majora. Moving medially, the next folds are called labia minora. Ventrally, they join to form a foreskin for the clitoris, this is the organ of arousal in a woman. Just dorsal to that is the urethra and then the vagina.<br /><br /><strong>16.4 Female Hormone Levels</strong><br /><br />Hormones cycle an average of every 28 days. This is ovary-driven. An ovary initially contains as many as 2 million follicles and only about 400 will ever mature to produce an egg. Generally speaking, only one egg is produced every month.<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Genetic spicing gone wrong. The chicken must have died,</span></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">there's not a full dozen.</span><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG86lEZhaRQ85tGz44SbJX51ATjpVkYRTm3NV6wwuID7osbiJMLHXgr_X-RZRfAwGqMlIUE8tRuxvRD7MTaPzDSOE0mkj39G276RiQaPBrVU2_QN1fmHZ-Hm65cKCEwhyphenhyphenDC1raGP7-nY28/s1600-h/eggman.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191138452706323570" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG86lEZhaRQ85tGz44SbJX51ATjpVkYRTm3NV6wwuID7osbiJMLHXgr_X-RZRfAwGqMlIUE8tRuxvRD7MTaPzDSOE0mkj39G276RiQaPBrVU2_QN1fmHZ-Hm65cKCEwhyphenhyphenDC1raGP7-nY28/s400/eggman.bmp" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><a href="http://www.worth1000.com/entries/53000/53426QwYU_w.jpg">www.worth1000.com/entries/53000/53426QwYU_w.jpg</a> </div><br /><div></div><div>Back to the basics . . .<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The human cycle is depicted in the picture below:</span> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4R_KbeES0lZxhABsaJyIvd9j-RI5vSsSgjV8tGGg5bVwrWPsmUkQOlgvLx1aspK6oK65iM3BoDcE_VKhbwHoAWjF6ZC7HLXk5MdTcfJzq5lVmLJvAsJBUfjgPemhc5_6HhGQGUNX4-S_c/s1600-h/follicledevelop.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191138452706323554" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4R_KbeES0lZxhABsaJyIvd9j-RI5vSsSgjV8tGGg5bVwrWPsmUkQOlgvLx1aspK6oK65iM3BoDcE_VKhbwHoAWjF6ZC7HLXk5MdTcfJzq5lVmLJvAsJBUfjgPemhc5_6HhGQGUNX4-S_c/s400/follicledevelop.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbio/repronot.html" target="_top">http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbio/repronot.html</a><br /><br />After the oocyte is released, the follicle develops into a corpus luteum. This produces progesterone and a little estrogen. As in men, the hypothalamus controls sexual function by releasing gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This stimulate the pituitary to produce FSHand LH, which control the ovarian cycle. During the first half of the cycle, the FSH stimulates the follicle in the ovary to produce estrogen which cignals the hypothalamus to secrete GnRH which in turn leads to a surge of LH production by the anterior pituitary and ovulation. The LH matures the corpus luteum and progesterone is secreted. Estrogen is responsible for our feminine traits. In encourages fatty accumulation under the skin, lending a softer appearance. The ovarian cycle will cease at around 50 years of age. The ovaries fail to respond to GhRH and no longer secrete estrogen and progesterone.<br />The uterine cycle is the response to the fluctuating hormones. The lining of the uterus will thicken to accommodate a possible developing embryo and this will slough off if an egg is not fertilized that month resulting in a menstrual period.<br />Pregnancy: Once a sperm has fertilized an egg, it becomes a zygote. This implants in the lining of the uterus. At the place where the molecules of fetal blood and maternal blood are exchanged, a placenta will develop. Progesterone production increases and will stop follicles from producing more eggs during the pregnancy. The placenta will begin to produce progesterone and estrogen and the corpus luteum will regress.<br /><br /><strong>16.5 Control of Reproduction</strong><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">There are multiple methods available to prevent pregnancy from occurring. They are listed below and these rates are applicable only when the methods are used correctly:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDOj_Y5-3sdMnCxoFVPYZmQeqF2k_f5yxXlt9igl5C_k8Lbzh7iU7PSgeO8H4Kv-_t-CYKHmyNgp4EoKZKKFg91iBKzh09gGTnrw-wICDhXfqSSS1gZgDqyDBwDbTggU1Vh_eWFD7tykpz/s1600-h/Bcp+effectiveness.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191138452706323538" style="CURSOR: hand" height="388" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDOj_Y5-3sdMnCxoFVPYZmQeqF2k_f5yxXlt9igl5C_k8Lbzh7iU7PSgeO8H4Kv-_t-CYKHmyNgp4EoKZKKFg91iBKzh09gGTnrw-wICDhXfqSSS1gZgDqyDBwDbTggU1Vh_eWFD7tykpz/s400/Bcp+effectiveness.gif" width="462" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><a title="FDA" href="http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/babytabl.html">http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/babytabl.html</a> </div><br /><div><br />Abstinence is the only guaranteed method of birth control and it also has the advantage of no STD transmission. Morning after pills are administered 1-7 days after intercourse has occurred. It upsets the progesterone cycle preventing the implantation of the embryo. RU-486 is a different type of morning-after pill that causes the endometrium to slough, of course the embryo goes with it.<br />Infertility is deemed such after one year of regularly attempted impregnation. Low sperm count is one cause of infertility. Too much sitting, smoking or drinking alcohol can cause this. Overweight women may fail to ovulate. Blocked oviducts from pelvic inflammatory disease and endometriosis can prevent the journey of the egg to the uterus also causing infertility.<br />There are technologies available to help infertile couples have children. Artificial insemination is when the sperm is placed in the vagina by a physician. This is helpful when the male has a low sperm count. Sometimes fertility drugs are given to the woman to produce one or more eggs and the sperm is placed directly into the uterus. In Vitro Fertilization, conception is attained in the lab. Then the embryos are transplanted in the uterus of the woman. Sometimes, other women are contracted to give birth. The egg and sperm can be from the desiring parents. Scientists can also inject a single sperm into and egg and then transplant it into the mom’s uterus.<br /><br /><strong>16.6 Sexually Transmitted Diseases</strong><br /><br />Viral Sexually Transmitted Diseases<br />HIV – precursor to AIDS. First stage of infection can be asymptomatic, but highly contagious. This may develop into AIDS when the helper T cell count falls dangerously low and the host cannot fight infections. AIDS patients usually die from opportunistic infections that would normally be stopped by a healthy immune system.<br />Genital Warts – caused by the human papillomaviruses. The carriers may not have warts and may have less noticeable flat lesions. A baby can pick up this virus as it passes through the birth canal. Vaccinations are available for some the common strains of this virus. 90% of all cancers of the cervix are thought to be caused by this virus.<br />Genital Herpes – Herpes simplex type 2. This is presented with blisters, tingling or itching sensations. Some events may be accompanied with fever, pain with urination, or swollen lymph nodes and the person is very contagious at this time. Newborns may pick this up through the birth canal.<br />Several types of hepatitis are acquired through sexual transmission. This generally causes liver damage.<br /><br />Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases<br /><br />These are curable with antibiotics. Some resistant strains may require taking stronger drugs for a longer amount of time.<br />Chlamydia – mild or asymptomatic in women. If undiagnosed, can spread from the cervix to the fallopian tubes causing pelvic inflammatory disease, a very painful condition which may result in infertility.<br />Gonorrhea – can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease in both males and females. Gonorrhea will infect whatever part was exposed to the virus and can be spread to internal parts, causing heart damage or arthritis. Because of increased resistance to antibiotic therapy, 40% of all strains don’t respond to therapy.<br />Syphilis – also potentially deadly, begins as a small ulcer (chancre) that resolves on its own. Then the infected person will develop a rash that does no itch and is seen on palms and soles of feet. This, too, will resolve. The last stage may affect the cardiovascular system by causing aneurysms and ulcers on the skin or internal organs. Early diagnosis and treatment is vital for successful treatment.<br />Other Common Infections<br />Bacterial vaginosis is asymptomatic and can be due to nonsexual reasons, or may have been passed on from infected males. Candida albicans (non-sexual) and Trichomonas (sexual) are vaginal infections treated with oral or topical medications.<br /><br /><strong>Chapter 17: Development and Aging<br /></strong><br /><strong>17.1 Fertilization</strong> </div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">The flagellum moves the sperm toward the egg. The arcosome on the head contains enzymes that will penetrate the zona pellucid.</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi-2vUoNfOccuSHGUSzmFB1orBYMlpeR0wzoI3NCO3h_Kei_eA2bZhlg1yHH_wvGF2yGoZGxM0965cAGPfIbw8lIVkZSpYhXdBdZeQxabBZqltY6ianCcA0wfaWRRE-mEq65bhK2Ukpx30/s1600-h/Fertilization.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191136193553525826" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi-2vUoNfOccuSHGUSzmFB1orBYMlpeR0wzoI3NCO3h_Kei_eA2bZhlg1yHH_wvGF2yGoZGxM0965cAGPfIbw8lIVkZSpYhXdBdZeQxabBZqltY6ianCcA0wfaWRRE-mEq65bhK2Ukpx30/s400/Fertilization.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.wccusd.k12.ca.us/gompers/HealthScience/BodySystems/FemaleReproductiveSystem.html">http://www.wccusd.k12.ca.us/gompers/HealthScience/BodySystems/FemaleReproductiveSystem.html</a><br /><br />As soon as the head touches the plasma membrane, it will depolarize prohibiting the penetration of more sperm. <span style="color:#000000;">When a sperm enters an egg to form a zygote, fertilization occurs.<br /></span><br /><br /><strong>17.2 Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development</strong><br /><br />Immediately after fertilization, the cells begin to divide within the zygote but it doesn’t increase in size. Then the daughter cells begin to increase in size. At morphogenesis, the cells migrate and begin to form the shape of the embryo. Differentiation is when the cells begin to function according to their structure. The nervous system is the first to appear.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The structures that support the embryo are pictured below.<br />Chorion – becomes the fetus’ half of the placenta.<br />Allantois – extends away from the embryo, collects urine before bladder develops. The blood vessels will become the umbilical blood vessels.<br />Yolk Sac – first embryonic membrane to appear. It contains a small amount of yolk. The placenta will soon take over.<br />Amnion – contains fluid which will protect the baby.</span> </div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIsd7G9_U8crnoQzzDj8uXwjfvVSSzuqOmPXB_nCCH9Qw3315M67-7CFV6OcbEilrRninTDw_cPpYqNo_EZUiJqcyJN0-Fhyphenhyphen6txitqYJYbHjYxyPfZP8sVohPDlYQYVj16nScQMGIlAbVR/s1600-h/extraembryonic.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191136189258558514" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIsd7G9_U8crnoQzzDj8uXwjfvVSSzuqOmPXB_nCCH9Qw3315M67-7CFV6OcbEilrRninTDw_cPpYqNo_EZUiJqcyJN0-Fhyphenhyphen6txitqYJYbHjYxyPfZP8sVohPDlYQYVj16nScQMGIlAbVR/s400/extraembryonic.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/campbl34_files/image037.gif">http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/campbl34_files/image037.gif</a> </div><br /><div><br />From a zygot, to a morula, to a blastocyst, this will separate into the embryo inside and the outer layer called a chorion. Embryonic development begins the second week. The chorion will secret enzymes to eat away some the tissue of the endometrium and implant. It will also secrete human chorionic gonadotropin which will preserve the lining of the uterus until the pregnancy is completed. This is the start of gastrulation, forming of three primary germ layers:<br /><strong>Ectoderm:</strong> outer layer forming the epidermis, lining of oral cavity and nervous system<br /><strong>Mesoderm:</strong> middle layer forming the skeleton, muscles, dermis, CV system, urinary system,<br />reproductive system, outer layers of respiratory and digestive systems<br /><strong>Endoderm:</strong> inner layer forming the digestive tract and respiratory tract and their glands.<br />In the third week the nervous system and the heart begins to form. At the end of the fifth week the umbilical cord will be fully formed. Little limb buds become apparent. At the end of eight weeks, the nervous system has developed enough to permit a startled response. The embryo is about 1.5 inches long and all organ systems are present.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">In the picture, ten models, approximately life-sized, represent eight weeks of embryonic development, at the end of which main organ systems, limbs and features have taken shape.</span> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg61YzFZNlb2jTAGGqHF8BtRmmAcSBSY2dUPc0O8ExUpp-qyRG0qaR4t-CNqj9pVv1oCkq2hJsGfcQKq5oiOqrvohVwLUGXRssG4Hb6J4v4NnGFwqMnJIYfwItVH9TOHPQCyAKFnXfxD3JG/s1600-h/embryo.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191145311769095362" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg61YzFZNlb2jTAGGqHF8BtRmmAcSBSY2dUPc0O8ExUpp-qyRG0qaR4t-CNqj9pVv1oCkq2hJsGfcQKq5oiOqrvohVwLUGXRssG4Hb6J4v4NnGFwqMnJIYfwItVH9TOHPQCyAKFnXfxD3JG/s400/embryo.jpg" border="0" /></a><br />h<a href="http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~gzy/heart/heart/embryo.htm">ttp://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~gzy/heart/heart/embryo.htm</a><br /><br /><strong>17.3 Fetal Development</strong><br /><br />At the third month the uterus is the size of a grapefruit and gender can be detected by ultrasound.<br />By four months, the skeleton is visible and hair is growing. At five months, a coating is developing on the baby and the heartbeat can be heard. By the seventh month, the testes descend in to the scrotom and the eyes are open. At eight months, the baby begins to develop that cute fat and is ready for birth at nine months. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Cute baby fat . . .</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG80j_xyIVC0rE_ALBvBFLnGbE34VAKqbv386dtYA7Mr6gJVdgKAIGO_WKZf02MyfZ-mYCEId47SxABlvVgKAaDC76y2S0AWFF7lITGdVt-lXgUAeaSXhoqW9hgBhoTRrqKuyz8yRIMWpK/s1600-h/chubby+baby.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191136184963591186" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG80j_xyIVC0rE_ALBvBFLnGbE34VAKqbv386dtYA7Mr6gJVdgKAIGO_WKZf02MyfZ-mYCEId47SxABlvVgKAaDC76y2S0AWFF7lITGdVt-lXgUAeaSXhoqW9hgBhoTRrqKuyz8yRIMWpK/s400/chubby+baby.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.humorupload.com/files/F4A589dzy.jpg">http://www.humorupload.com/files/F4A589dzy.jpg</a><br /><br />During pregnancy, the placenta will become the source of progesterone and estrogen to discourage follicle stimulation and to maintain the endometrium. </div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The path of fetal circulation</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuXZQcKBM085GzBXD1KB5YyDu1GCknY03RicHF5Ev5T80frZQAZMAu3NA16tKSBkt6QN7cM1moBfBji45lHRdhEh-2xQNHz1tH7owPunIMvRomf_AFfZsdnGdJSa_tAt4zLA8mUPaMrGv9/s1600-h/fetal+circulation.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191134613005560834" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuXZQcKBM085GzBXD1KB5YyDu1GCknY03RicHF5Ev5T80frZQAZMAu3NA16tKSBkt6QN7cM1moBfBji45lHRdhEh-2xQNHz1tH7owPunIMvRomf_AFfZsdnGdJSa_tAt4zLA8mUPaMrGv9/s400/fetal+circulation.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.lpch.org/DiseaseHealthInfo/HealthLibrary/cardiac/fetlcirc.html">http://www.lpch.org/DiseaseHealthInfo/HealthLibrary/cardiac/fetlcirc.html</a><br /><br />Blood is received from the placenta, goes through the liver and is received in the right atrium. Some of it is shunted through the foramen ovale directly to the left atrium, then the left ventricle. Some of the blood in the right atrium will be pumped into the right ventricle where it will be sent through the pulmonary trunk and arterial duct to the aorta as well. The ventricle pumps the blood to the aorta and is then sent to the head and body and returns to the right atrium. Desaturated blood is returned to the placenta via the umbilical arteries. At birth the foramen ovale and arterial ducts will usually close in order to route the blood through the lungs when they start working.<br />At six weeks, the genitals are indifferent – no specific gender. A gene (SRY) will signal for testes to develop and the testes will produce testosterone. Without SRY, ovaries will develop. Genitals will develop into distinct gender at around 14 weeks.<br />People with the XY chromosome are males and XX are females. There are a few abnormal developments that make the determination ambiguous. The androgen insensitivity syndrome is when the membrane receptors for testosterone are ineffective. The person will develop as a female and it is not discovered until she fails to menstruate.<br /><br /><strong>17.4 Pregnancy and Birth</strong><br /></div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Needs no introduction . . .</span><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWCTqf3_mK-N3fa_o1YXpvuydMNh7G1BCi0-f6UrrJWQN9FDhLZqWstpW1mDY8gmCZjFLV6CypVHoyKOqQcfzTnOGLNXUJ4cP-mMMdVFdXf14sqVQt6ctvP8xrtxCCkbbjYQItC8VEvI9M/s1600-h/pregnant_foot_belly.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191134608710593522" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWCTqf3_mK-N3fa_o1YXpvuydMNh7G1BCi0-f6UrrJWQN9FDhLZqWstpW1mDY8gmCZjFLV6CypVHoyKOqQcfzTnOGLNXUJ4cP-mMMdVFdXf14sqVQt6ctvP8xrtxCCkbbjYQItC8VEvI9M/s400/pregnant_foot_belly.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://randobs.blogspot.com/2008/01/pregnant-wife.html" target="_top">randobs.blogspot.com/2008/01/pregnant-wife.html</a><br /><br />Initially, one the the first symptoms of becoming pregnant is nausea, vomiting or loss of appetite. She may also become tired. This usually subsides after the first trimester. Energy and stamina are reported often throughout normal, progressing pregnancies. She will gain weight from the enlarging uterus and baby developing inside, her breasts are also enlarging, and her own increase in body fluid (40% increase in blood volume) and fat stores. Increased Progesterone levels will relax smooth muscles also causing perhaps, heartburn and constipation. The tidal volume of her lungs will increase 40% and carbon dioxide levels will fall 20%. Pressure from the uterus on the bladder can cause frequency and incontinence. Pressure on the vena cava will decrease venous return and may cause varicose veins and swollen legs.<br />As she approaches labor, contractions experienced throughout the pregnancy will become stronger. False labor or Braxton Hicks contractions may fool her into believing it is time for delivery. True labor is defined by contractions every 15-20 minutes lasting at least 40 seconds or longer.<br />The stretching cervix stimulates the release of oxytocin from the pituitary gland. This stimulates the uterine muscles. During Stage 1 of labor the uterus will push the baby harder against the cervix. When the cervix is completely dilated, Stage 1 is over. Stage 2 is the birth of the baby. Contractions occur more frequently to push the baby through the birth canal. During a normal presentation, the head appears first. Complications may occur if a different part presents. Stage 3 is the delivery of the placenta. The uterus continues to contract which shrinks the uterus and displaces the placenta.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Definitely worth the effort . . .</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0gkof_XJZNOhW6L_6QsIFw-QR_oF9pU2umuxoBGeu1DP67MI_0FOSUnU5iO-eD7Jk_wQbdDKvSgRC9u67LZb05beenrmd2mgGpd627Z_cJNjwh1AQUw3v_9d-3UtXizrjtUi78r9Saq-B/s1600-h/cute+baby.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191134608710593506" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0gkof_XJZNOhW6L_6QsIFw-QR_oF9pU2umuxoBGeu1DP67MI_0FOSUnU5iO-eD7Jk_wQbdDKvSgRC9u67LZb05beenrmd2mgGpd627Z_cJNjwh1AQUw3v_9d-3UtXizrjtUi78r9Saq-B/s400/cute+baby.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://amazinasian.com/weblog/pics/59425792105_0_ALBsmall.jpg">http://amazinasian.com/weblog/pics/59425792105_0_ALBsmall.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>17.5 Development after Birth</strong><br /><br />Gerontology is the study of aging. It has been the pursuit of many to find the fountain of youth. Research as to why we age has produced a mitochondrial hypothesis – when mitochondria produce energy, they produce free radicals (extra electrons). These attach to other molecules which become disabled and are destroyed. A restricted food intake shuts down the genes the turn on the activity of the mitochondria.<br />Many hormones also diminish or receptors become resistant. The thymus gland decreases in size and our immune response diminishes. Cancers increase in incidence as we age. Collagen stiffens and effect the elasticity of tendons and ligaments and skin (becomes thinner and less elastic). Hair follicles lessen in number and a decrease in melanocytes causes what hair is left to turn gray and skin to pale. Cardiovascular problems are associated with loss of muscle and hardening and narrowing of the arteries. Blood flow is reduced to all systems of the body and everything functions subpar. Medication must be closely monitored because the filtering of the kidneys and liver are diminished and unsafe levels can occur when elimination is compromised. The digestive tract also slows causing hearburn and slow elimination. Good news is that few neural cells of the cerebral cortex are lost during the aging process. It takes longer for a senior to learn new facts, but one can if given the time to do so. Diminished hearing and vision, glaucoma, loss of muscle mass, inability to hold urine, bone density decline, arthritis and weight gain are all problems shared by the elderly. Why are these the “Golden Years?”<br />Women enter menopause around 50 years of age and men enter andropause somewhat later between 50-90. Both signify a decrease of the sex hormone and diminished libido.<br />Many of the problems associated with aging can be avoided with good health habits developed earlier in life.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn7bXj4r57EZjGI9iM1cyrZx4scVhliYlrUVvTpNHsM42WmMLiC51-fcHfzl5CFzL5YPAyVhRviU3uPDFweWHuzcJXQ-CXzrNB-vquNs0hZvqIng9UMcm0ircmUodEsE6HxQOT4tfeeY-E/s1600-h/gerihands.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5191134604415626194" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn7bXj4r57EZjGI9iM1cyrZx4scVhliYlrUVvTpNHsM42WmMLiC51-fcHfzl5CFzL5YPAyVhRviU3uPDFweWHuzcJXQ-CXzrNB-vquNs0hZvqIng9UMcm0ircmUodEsE6HxQOT4tfeeY-E/s400/gerihands.jpg" border="0" /></a><br />h<a href="http://www.fammed.washington.edu/network/sfm/gerihands.jpg">ttp://www.fammed.washington.edu/network/sfm/gerihands.jpg</a> </div></div></div></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-75990880964061891402008-04-13T12:04:00.000-07:002008-04-15T19:37:41.436-07:00Unit III: Self and Unit Evaluation<span style="color:#ff6600;">REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE </span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">I posted this before finding the other site . . . so posted there, too.<br /></span>1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?</span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Again, completing the unit. </span></span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Developing an understanding of the topics.</span></span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Not being as overwhelmed, (still many hours spent) and finding it more enjoyable.</span><br />2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?</span><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"></span><span style="color:#000000;">You'll have to let me know . . .</span><span style="color:#ff6600;"><br />3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?<br /></span><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Hoping again for another A!</span><br />4. How could I perform better in the next unit?<br /><span style="color:#000000;">Still struggling with time management.</span><br /><br /><br />REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")<br />At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?<br /><span style="color:#000000;">I have to admit that building the model definately pulled me into the </span><br /><span style="color:#000000;">whole nerve/muscle dynamic.<br /></span><br />At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?<br /><span style="color:#000000;">Again, the compendiums.<br /></span><br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?<br /><span style="color:#000000;">Had no contact with either.</span><br /><br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?<br /><span style="color:#000000;">Had no contact with either.</span><br />What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)<br /></span>I am beginning to enjoy acquiring the knowledge. Even though the compendiums are the worse part of this course, I have to admit they do help the information to stick. Building the limb forced my lazy mind to grasp the dynamics well enough to model and explain it. So I have to say thank you for arranging the class as you have, Mr. Frolich.<br /><br /></span>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-78032538282254807402008-04-12T22:33:00.001-07:002008-04-12T23:08:12.112-07:00<div><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong>Compendium III</strong></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Chapter 11: Skeletal System</strong></span> </div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJD6kWeirRcXN1IrvUb6ecdVaDtvRqIlXCp8pWAv1DQd3XbVd7x-uo5bEjtdX6lh4GjgB_v9SgU3zbN4t-a4Ml9H6XC5MuMeDZSEg_1N0iVHjxMH662x-mwVXD-6yQTFf1CxAR24vaA9HX/s1600-h/skeleton.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188603592926776914" style="WIDTH: 385px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 394px" height="367" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJD6kWeirRcXN1IrvUb6ecdVaDtvRqIlXCp8pWAv1DQd3XbVd7x-uo5bEjtdX6lh4GjgB_v9SgU3zbN4t-a4Ml9H6XC5MuMeDZSEg_1N0iVHjxMH662x-mwVXD-6yQTFf1CxAR24vaA9HX/s400/skeleton.jpg" width="351" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><a href="http://www.contmediausa.com/shop/app/products/Human3D/Images/BS000A.jpg">http://www.contmediausa.com/shop/app/products/Human3D/Images/BS000A.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>11.1 Overview of a Skeletal System</strong><br /><br />The skeleton supports the body, protects organs and soft parts, produces blood cells, stores minerals and fat, is utilized by muscles to produce movement.<br />A long bone has a shaft (diaphysis) containing a medullary cavity. Ths is lined with yellow bone marrow that stores fat. The rounded ends of the long bone are called epiphyses. These have spongy bone matter containing red bone marrow where the blood cells are made.. The outer ends of the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage where the joints articulate. </div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Example of Long Bone</span><br /><br /><div></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizKZgUwAzKE1wRKNn8R42FGB2x8oFcntMhDWv-KOcf-xc4k6AoLZmz135xxiNbIbEUz8tQbBLHpS-U21x8jLC8uE9NLpXS3tkVUe1JmFsQoRlz6djNvvhLk6OFLbLyI6ER2yR_JgMMg5R4/s1600-h/long_bone.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188604280121544290" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizKZgUwAzKE1wRKNn8R42FGB2x8oFcntMhDWv-KOcf-xc4k6AoLZmz135xxiNbIbEUz8tQbBLHpS-U21x8jLC8uE9NLpXS3tkVUe1JmFsQoRlz6djNvvhLk6OFLbLyI6ER2yR_JgMMg5R4/s400/long_bone.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><a href="http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Skeletal/long_bone.jpg">http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Skeletal/long_bone.jpg</a> </div><br /><div><br />Except for these areas, the rest of the bone is covered with a periosteum which contains blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves. These penetrate the bone for exchange of nutrients/wastes. Compact bone is comprised of bone cells (osteocytes) arranged around the central canals which form the walls of the diaphysis. Spongy bone has a sponge-like appearance (d-uh). Thin plates (trabeculae) are separated by uneven spaces. These are also very strong and provide ample support. These are filled with red bone marrow. Cartilage has a flexible gel-like matrix and contains no nerves or blood vessels. Hyaline cartilage forms articular cartilage. Fibrocartilage is stronger and provides support in the vertebrae and knees. Elastic cartilage is as it sounds, more flexible and comprises the ear flaps and epiglottis. Ligaments and tendons are made of fibrous connective tissue. Ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscles to bones at joints.<br /><br /><strong>11.2 Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair</strong><br /><br />Bones start to form in the fetus at six weeks when it is about ½ inch long. Bones will continue to grow or respond to stresses throughout a lifetime. Remodeling is a reaction to stresses. Bone repair is healing after a fracture.<br />These cells are involved in those processes:<br />Osteoblasts - form bone. Build the matrix and facilitate the deposit of minerals.<br />Osteocytes – when osteoblasts become trapped within the bone matrix, they become osteocytes which maintain the structure of the bone.<br />Osteoclasts - break down any extra bone framework that the osteoblasts make and help to deposit calcium and phosphate in the blood.<br />Ossification is the formation of bone. This occurs two ways:<br />Flat bones are formed from intramembranous ossification between sheets of fibous connective tissue. Long bones (most of the bones of the human skeleton) are formed by endochondral ossification. Cartilage is replaced by bone. This will continue as long as the growth plate is present. This activity will cease in women around age 18 and in men around 25 years. The diameter of a bone will grow as the bone lengthens.<br />Vitamin D encourages absorption of calcium in the digestive tract. Growth hormone when supported by the thyroid hormone stimulates bone growth.<br />Bone remodeling, or renewal, recycles as much as 18% of bone matter. This allows the body to regulate how much calcium in concentrated in our blood. Parathyroid hormone increases calcium concentrations in the blood and calcitonin has the opposite effect. Estrogen can increase osteoblasts and that is why women, whose estrogen levels are diminishing in menopause, suffer bone loss. Stress that encourages bone growth is not a bad thing, walking, strength training and jogging all encourage stronger bone growth.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Image below:<br />1. Hematoma forms at break 2. Fibrocartilaginous callus will fill the space 3. Bony callus formed by osteoblasts. 4. Osteoblasts build new compact bone and osteoclasts create new medullary cavity.<br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-BAZINUMO6ITRNPnj1Dmvi88xdyXe_CUXiH_kGDCXVGxeWietFaMEdqPUukD7h-wAYr8un3mgna2AdV5NivvAdVidoK1p-lQCQD1Z_pJGjx_xMIstJTi0B-w6MMirltIsF1kbuvLy7bCZ/s1600-h/bone+repair.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188602751113186866" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-BAZINUMO6ITRNPnj1Dmvi88xdyXe_CUXiH_kGDCXVGxeWietFaMEdqPUukD7h-wAYr8un3mgna2AdV5NivvAdVidoK1p-lQCQD1Z_pJGjx_xMIstJTi0B-w6MMirltIsF1kbuvLy7bCZ/s400/bone+repair.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.apatech.com/storage/images/bone2.jpg">http://www.apatech.com/storage/images/bone2.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>11.3 Bones of the Axial Skeleton</strong> </div><br /><div><br />The skull:<br />The Skull is formed by the cranium and bones of the face. These bones join together at around age 16 months. The cranium contains the sinuses which adds resonance to our voices and its airy consistency reduces the weight of the skull. The bones of the skull have the same names of the lobes of the brain. The Sphenoid bone is the keystone for all the other bones of the cranium. It extends across the floor of the cranium and up the sides. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Cranium<br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIRJyKdq-vtLAGQ9ZhLX03EfqAMhPgW39DfiLYuukiTqzAQ3V3gAgnB3uZSS-Bn_-0ToN4o6GI16BJ55XqevEzok_DGXe-S2yHs8pXnk9HK4t8szYrDudosCVV-76-zSzLEMvjupT_J355/s1600-h/cranium_side.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188602751113186834" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIRJyKdq-vtLAGQ9ZhLX03EfqAMhPgW39DfiLYuukiTqzAQ3V3gAgnB3uZSS-Bn_-0ToN4o6GI16BJ55XqevEzok_DGXe-S2yHs8pXnk9HK4t8szYrDudosCVV-76-zSzLEMvjupT_J355/s400/cranium_side.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/webanatomy/cranium.html">www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/webanatomy/cranium.html</a> </span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#3333ff;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Axial Skeleton</span></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht_y2HYH3GWDZnUfAr4uo_fbWjIdo3C7T4y-YrHnuUxJBFpswaXprXfa0y_XjM8gGMze7SsCDt8MwkLCtZJTX4T763Rh2hwnOFaXFq24Jmrk7t3WD6fd_ZKl7u0BCnvqBngf_CnodaxfAJ/s1600-h/axial+skeleton.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188602746818219522" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht_y2HYH3GWDZnUfAr4uo_fbWjIdo3C7T4y-YrHnuUxJBFpswaXprXfa0y_XjM8gGMze7SsCDt8MwkLCtZJTX4T763Rh2hwnOFaXFq24Jmrk7t3WD6fd_ZKl7u0BCnvqBngf_CnodaxfAJ/s400/axial+skeleton.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/axial.gif">http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/axial.gif</a> </div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Facial Bones: Pictured below:</span><br /><br /></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzCAOwV_c5D4MhOVTI3Pk9htCvMrh8JAXhIT6Ajz5OpaPbRs_nd4A3hSBcxQ_c-BmzrLzO4kpmqDPUh6c0qgqFJ12JYnSgAwyABOnlupLQtgyPlQQZAb3lrdNHCeWTPjnnNSdnVs5mhenN/s1600-h/cranium_front.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188602751113186850" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzCAOwV_c5D4MhOVTI3Pk9htCvMrh8JAXhIT6Ajz5OpaPbRs_nd4A3hSBcxQ_c-BmzrLzO4kpmqDPUh6c0qgqFJ12JYnSgAwyABOnlupLQtgyPlQQZAb3lrdNHCeWTPjnnNSdnVs5mhenN/s400/cranium_front.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/webanatomy/cranium.html<br /></span></div><br /><div><br />The mandible is the jaw – the only part of the skull that moves.<br />The Hyoid Bone: The hyoid is the only bone in the body that does not interact with another bone. It is attached to the temporal bones and the larynx by ligaments and membranes. A fractured hyoid is a warning that someone<br />may have strangled this person. </div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Vertebral Column:</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5LHFhLnnM_DuKsjsmWKj3lRVSM-4lT30rzwLrGEOJaRlor9K08wuzCaZrfe6YzPyiZaaHBT8LVKFyqdwFPVhpe55i7IxCxcnaSARwxswqDFJwhB7WfdZPPrEgegbqr4Uy1BsVRxo8t3Wa/s1600-h/spine3-BB.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188601827695218146" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5LHFhLnnM_DuKsjsmWKj3lRVSM-4lT30rzwLrGEOJaRlor9K08wuzCaZrfe6YzPyiZaaHBT8LVKFyqdwFPVhpe55i7IxCxcnaSARwxswqDFJwhB7WfdZPPrEgegbqr4Uy1BsVRxo8t3Wa/s400/spine3-BB.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.spineuniverse.com/displaygraphic.php/171/spine3-BB.jpg">http://www.spineuniverse.com/displaygraphic.php/171/spine3-BB.jpg</a> </div><br /><div><br />Consists of 33 vertebrae. The normal curvature of the spinal column gives it strength. Abnormal curvatures sometimes occur. Scoliosis is a sideways curvature and Lordosis is a “swayback” or anterior curvature. There are disks between the vertebrae that absorb shock experienced from various movements. If these are compressed or bulging, they can press on the spinal nerves.<br />The Rib Cage: protects the heart and lungs and is flexible to allow for breathing.<br />The Sternum: also protects the heart and lungs. </div><br /><div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9VKuRAwwp0r__UTMrpYkdRXBDgKbGyoqy1kxLmaVhCaiSZxwXwkklwjaeJL6_rkVmYiMiHoA3o8tfTq1GKjMTJMdUTBOcjpW-1w00PlkOmT4p1co1z_oZ793bTO1aFMDEEfX2GmeN28Tu/s1600-h/ribs.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188601831990185458" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9VKuRAwwp0r__UTMrpYkdRXBDgKbGyoqy1kxLmaVhCaiSZxwXwkklwjaeJL6_rkVmYiMiHoA3o8tfTq1GKjMTJMdUTBOcjpW-1w00PlkOmT4p1co1z_oZ793bTO1aFMDEEfX2GmeN28Tu/s400/ribs.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://academic.wsc.edu/faculty/jatodd1/351/thoarcic_cage.jpg">http://academic.wsc.edu/faculty/jatodd1/351/thoarcic_cage.jpg</a> </div><br /><div><br /><strong>11.4 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton</strong> </div><br /><div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHWEZHCghiKBZVj0yMe09qkzZ3SdC1QNVgxS3RzlRBx_vS7Kjh9eFqS4DOL3klMoEEQQQ0BO8vEm99URNCxaKvRJIB0lMb3isMu13dOAbBGXtnPNxgR454XKWERW6EnleigkUbPMOPxqdp/s1600-h/appendicular.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188601823400250818" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHWEZHCghiKBZVj0yMe09qkzZ3SdC1QNVgxS3RzlRBx_vS7Kjh9eFqS4DOL3klMoEEQQQ0BO8vEm99URNCxaKvRJIB0lMb3isMu13dOAbBGXtnPNxgR454XKWERW6EnleigkUbPMOPxqdp/s400/appendicular.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><a href="http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/append.gif">http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/append.gif</a> </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Arms and shoulders - part of the appendicular skeleton</span><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNk_2JXCyrMDjCMoOR5Zs_6ttIS-h4PIKzCOnXFEaVkp2ncQZDDm_B6P05tU7vRV-Ppea7LApW24E7GV24Sxkms48pyW3oJAhUha2-g5phFUBJmA_monrgPnNGDPCqp2la8z0YjNvgHaiv/s1600-h/arm+bones.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188601827695218130" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNk_2JXCyrMDjCMoOR5Zs_6ttIS-h4PIKzCOnXFEaVkp2ncQZDDm_B6P05tU7vRV-Ppea7LApW24E7GV24Sxkms48pyW3oJAhUha2-g5phFUBJmA_monrgPnNGDPCqp2la8z0YjNvgHaiv/s400/arm+bones.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_arm_bones_diagram.svg">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_arm_bones_diagram.svg</a> </div><br /><div><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Legs, hips and pelvis - lower part of appendicular skeleton</span><br /></div><br /><div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8rChPAeCpXsq9Y941K2vijEGB7gxfUHWXpygdNR0pEaeXKwgzXw1Oza-yHOwB5HEJrjLleeV8nlat05VD1tH3HEaAAfIyrVgwUyMBAsv5Dd3GA9_RT_xqYpqarcaBuZIu0QdSucOqgvJ2/s1600-h/pelvic_girdle.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188600762543328690" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8rChPAeCpXsq9Y941K2vijEGB7gxfUHWXpygdNR0pEaeXKwgzXw1Oza-yHOwB5HEJrjLleeV8nlat05VD1tH3HEaAAfIyrVgwUyMBAsv5Dd3GA9_RT_xqYpqarcaBuZIu0QdSucOqgvJ2/s400/pelvic_girdle.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.dmacc.edu/instructors/rbwollaston/Skeletal_System/pelvic_girdle.gif </span><br /><br /><strong>11.5 Articulations</strong><br /><br />The joints where bones articulate. Fibrous joints don’t move. Cartilaginous joints are only slightly flexible.<br />Synovial (fluid-filled sacs) joints have different types of movements. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Samples of joints:</span></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDtFE3Y5SC8vDEEFEWsi2GketXZoQtvG4nG00f6QwUA7_n03GI9fm68TW8YkK1OR5nO0iwKOdxTMtXFcq5MA9jUvNoDUF0hg3w9GE2w59rSSQsBBUEuaLKwW-WDoW4bQpScL1KlT0uchyphenhyphenG/s1600-h/synovial_20joints.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188600758248361378" style="CURSOR: hand" height="542" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDtFE3Y5SC8vDEEFEWsi2GketXZoQtvG4nG00f6QwUA7_n03GI9fm68TW8YkK1OR5nO0iwKOdxTMtXFcq5MA9jUvNoDUF0hg3w9GE2w59rSSQsBBUEuaLKwW-WDoW4bQpScL1KlT0uchyphenhyphenG/s400/synovial_20joints.jpg" width="424" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><br /><a href="http://www.shelfieldpeonline.co.uk/assets/images/types_20of_20synovial_20joints.jpg">http://www.shelfieldpeonline.co.uk/assets/images/types_20of_20synovial_20joints.jpg</a><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Chapter 12: Muscular System</strong><br /></span><br /><strong>12.1 Overview of muscular System<br /></strong><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Types:<br />Smooth: is involuntary and internal, nonstriated, uninucleated fibers<br />Cardiac: is involuntary, located in heart, striated and branched<br />Skeletal: is voluntary, striated, tubular and is usually attached to a skeleton</span> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0VubnHGzjljUe9Z-qO6BD-hiYEvTQiRgX-fDCibz8mJSqUscFrMRbKg0RuWvSJhVNGiYThU7qDT80lquDlu5A0F1p2B6er6hW_xoLafnbIMbEXJWL4xyQSNMZecTMMy3CPtMDExlNFcgv/s1600-h/3+types+of+muscles.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188600758248361362" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0VubnHGzjljUe9Z-qO6BD-hiYEvTQiRgX-fDCibz8mJSqUscFrMRbKg0RuWvSJhVNGiYThU7qDT80lquDlu5A0F1p2B6er6hW_xoLafnbIMbEXJWL4xyQSNMZecTMMy3CPtMDExlNFcgv/s400/3+types+of+muscles.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.nsbri.org/HumanPhysSpace/focus5/f5-190.jpg">http://www.nsbri.org/HumanPhysSpace/focus5/f5-190.jpg</a> </div><br /><div><br />Skeletal muscles support the body, move our bones, produce heat, assists with venous and lymph return, and protects organs. Muscles work in pairs, one contracts to move the appendage in one direction and its synergist or antagonist will move the appendage back to the original position. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below, is someone who does this a lot.</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixo90jwxatoghmutNG2CYkFUkZsezmonijq9CNTqtbSE2NihnuE2mCcj5TM-Ovk4svR5JEPgdl_AKZIAwz4dN89YNb_fS-eID5xROHikFF_THl6sgAjUw-FcCBDWtCyYu-2AneOTMRp_WV/s1600-h/muscular+man.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188600758248361346" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixo90jwxatoghmutNG2CYkFUkZsezmonijq9CNTqtbSE2NihnuE2mCcj5TM-Ovk4svR5JEPgdl_AKZIAwz4dN89YNb_fS-eID5xROHikFF_THl6sgAjUw-FcCBDWtCyYu-2AneOTMRp_WV/s400/muscular+man.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/e/images/ecorche_contemp.chart.lg.jpg">http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/e/images/ecorche_contemp.chart.lg.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>12.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction</strong><br /><br />Muscle fibers are cells that have similar cellular componants to other cells, but they have been given specific names. The plasma membrane is sarcolemma, cytoplasm is sarcoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum is sarcoplasmic reticulum. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Anatomy of muscle and how it is attached to the bone</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd_0khT6wQ5Hkdj8dJGkDf_pmklyr9_PsZxSC756qsIylITuscyOHv4vtz-MGnSdHc9PE05HdrxqXS_MhCz3U423esRizSUcxv0iGfS_UNDOQxM283HDwJc2b4iTfTa7BBgB1Jye63ogOD/s1600-h/structureofmuscle.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188599310844382578" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd_0khT6wQ5Hkdj8dJGkDf_pmklyr9_PsZxSC756qsIylITuscyOHv4vtz-MGnSdHc9PE05HdrxqXS_MhCz3U423esRizSUcxv0iGfS_UNDOQxM283HDwJc2b4iTfTa7BBgB1Jye63ogOD/s400/structureofmuscle.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/class/bio590/pictures/lect1/structureofskelmus1.jpeg">http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/class/bio590/pictures/lect1/structureofskelmus1.jpeg</a> </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">More anatomy of muscle:</span></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi71f3b5iFA0GSXqsQtLgjhC4LK3paWweqcBGpbvKPCkgIpXSS7rTwaunFxl2AZWHpg3M0SXJgnmP22j4gFuzQLmwOc4gcEpo4oOOJraMf0xG8031IpDtox-tOhQY0AUqUDw2K7FJcYeBYv/s1600-h/muscle+cell.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188599310844382562" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi71f3b5iFA0GSXqsQtLgjhC4LK3paWweqcBGpbvKPCkgIpXSS7rTwaunFxl2AZWHpg3M0SXJgnmP22j4gFuzQLmwOc4gcEpo4oOOJraMf0xG8031IpDtox-tOhQY0AUqUDw2K7FJcYeBYv/s400/muscle+cell.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.etsu.edu/cpah/hsci/forsman/Histology%20of%20musclefor%20web_files/image009.jpg">http://www.etsu.edu/cpah/hsci/forsman/Histology%20of%20musclefor%20web_files/image009.jpg</a><br /><br />The sarcopasmic reticulum contains myofibrils (contractile portions) and other organelles are located between the myofibrils. Glycogen is stored in the sarcoplasm as well as myoglobin which stores oxygen.<br />Sarcomeres cause striations in skeletal muscle and contain two types of protein myofilaments, thicker filaments are called myosin and the thin ones are called actin. During contraction calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In response, the actin slides past the myosin towards each other which shortens the muscle. This is called the sliding filament model. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Actin and Myosin filaments</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeiTIM4UblgkEIud1bgRAK5UlTZeT3G7i2vcf2zucCljTwhZLand7GMcDxRFa5B1o86TA7NDzbkGVZ1lTdUaKbs6qhkZzOf7n_D-VXL706sX9BK14L-c0b1OockoWNjPGf91y8VgktK8hu/s1600-h/ActinMyosin.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188599306549415250" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeiTIM4UblgkEIud1bgRAK5UlTZeT3G7i2vcf2zucCljTwhZLand7GMcDxRFa5B1o86TA7NDzbkGVZ1lTdUaKbs6qhkZzOf7n_D-VXL706sX9BK14L-c0b1OockoWNjPGf91y8VgktK8hu/s400/ActinMyosin.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.exrx.net/ExInfo/Muscle.html">http://www.exrx.net/ExInfo/Muscle.html</a> </div><br /><div><br />Motor neurons stimulate muscles at the synaptic cleft . Neurotransmitters cross the cleft binding to receptors in the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma signals impulses over the sarcolemma and down T Tubules to the Sarcoplasmic reticulum causing contraction.<br /><br /><strong>12.3 Whole Muscle Contraction</strong> </div><br /><div><br />Each axon from one nerve can stimulate a number of muscle fibers. This entire group is called a motor unit. In the leg, one axon can stimulate 1000 muscle fibers, by contrast the ocular muscle group may only stimulate 23 muscle units per axon. A twitch is a short burst and a rapid series of stimuli can result in increased muscle contraction – maximum is called tetanus. When fatigue occurs, the muscle will relax even though stimuli has not.<br />Muscles use 4 different types of fuel sources:<br />Muscle triglycerides, plasma fatty acids, blood glucose, and muscle glycogen.<br />The creatine phosphate pathway is the quickest way to for muscles to obtain energy. This method is good for the beginning of low level exertion or 5 seconds of short-burst, high energy exertion.<br />The creatine is created while the muscle fibers are at rest in the midst of the sliding filaments. Only one reaction is needed to produce ATP. If the energy requirements are more than what’s available from the CP pathway, the body will utilize fermentation.<br />Fermentation is also fast-acting, but will result in the build-up of lactate. It is anaerobic. The process produces an oxygen debt which causes increased respirations after the exercise has ceased. The lactate will be broken down the CO2 and water (20%), and converted back into glucose and glycogen.<br />Cellular Respiration is used mostly when exercise is below the maximum one can expend. It uses fatty acids or glycogen stored in the muscles. This is the exercise most desirable for losing weight.<br />Our muscles have two types of fibers:<br />Fast Twitch: these are anaerobic and have more power, but fatigues easily.<br />Slow Twitch: are aerobic and have more endurance, good for jogging, biking or swimming.<br /><br /><strong>12.4 Muscular Disorders</strong><br /><br />Spasms are intermittent involuntary muscle contractions. These can be annoying or painful. Cramps are stronger, painful spasms. Facial tics are spasms affected our faces, therefor expressions. These are involuntary, but can be controlled with difficulty.<br />Strains are injuries that affect muscles or tendons, thick bands that attach muscles to bones. They occur in response to a quick tear, twist, or pull of the muscle. Strains are an acute type of injury that results from overstretching or over contraction. Pain, weakness, and muscle spasms are common symptoms experienced after a strain occurs.<br />Sprains are injuries that affect ligaments, thick bands of cartilage that attach bone to bone. They occur in response to a stretch or tear of a ligament. Sprains are an acute type of injury that results from trauma such as a fall or outside force that displaces the surrounding joint from its normal alignment. Sprains can range from a mild ligamentous stretch to a complete tear. Bruising, swelling, instability, and painful movement are common symptoms experienced after a sprain occurs. <a href="http://physicaltherapy.about.com/od/sportsinjuries/a/strainvssprain.htm"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://physicaltherapy.about.com/od/sportsinjuries/a/strainvssprain.htm</span></a> </div><br /><div><br />Tendinitis is inflammation of the tendon. Bursitis is inflammation of the bursa (sac that cushions joint movements).<br />Myalgia is aching muscles. Fibromyalgia – a controversial chronic painful condition involving muscles. Muscular Dystrophy is an inherited condition in which there is progressive weakening of the muscles. Myasthenia Gravis is an autoimmune disease that destroys acetylcholine receptors. This is more pronounced in the head, neck, and extremities. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. Gradual loss of muscle use results in inability to chew or swallow resulting in death.<br /><br />Body dysmorphic disorder – being excessively concerned and preoccupied with an imagined or minor defect in their appearance <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6jtjvrRAcy0Zqzm6-CZUUyF45xq1zrYqi9P4lCnGoQVFyRvxYO_s-0XNjkfvAWfe_8dot9NVpJvTU49_vqVPQFEzVwIrORdTcYq3sI1jfzUYXVyqGYeqdNdv8eeBCmzeSLLm724A2R_Ef/s1600-h/muscle+men.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188599306549415234" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6jtjvrRAcy0Zqzm6-CZUUyF45xq1zrYqi9P4lCnGoQVFyRvxYO_s-0XNjkfvAWfe_8dot9NVpJvTU49_vqVPQFEzVwIrORdTcYq3sI1jfzUYXVyqGYeqdNdv8eeBCmzeSLLm724A2R_Ef/s400/muscle+men.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://farm1.static.flickr.com/144/367772579_ab90abdfd2.jpg">http://farm1.static.flickr.com/144/367772579_ab90abdfd2.jpg</a><br /><br /><strong>12.5 Homeostasis</strong><br /><br />Both muscular and skeletal systems work to maintain homeostasis.<br />Movement: Muscles move and are supported by skeleton<br />Protection: Both protect body parts<br />Bones are influenced by hormones to store and release calcium. Muscles need calcium for contractions.<br />Bones produce blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen needed to produce ATP by aerobic cellular respiration. White cells fight infection.<br />Muscles help regulate body temperature. Contracting muscles produce heat. That is why when you’re very cold, you shiver. </div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitnVayJI813a-10p4yOhu7v4BeWFMIT6jXAW_BK8MsUQ4sT9-dX0rbxdckhMLmitW-_85cpoW-Q8h2hiVlUynNj5x1st3zsTbWCiILzoTBnPy0TebbWaVwxPWiZ7yMGQRLEZXJ-60xY-7B/s1600-h/shivering.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188607570066493042" style="CURSOR: hand" height="352" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitnVayJI813a-10p4yOhu7v4BeWFMIT6jXAW_BK8MsUQ4sT9-dX0rbxdckhMLmitW-_85cpoW-Q8h2hiVlUynNj5x1st3zsTbWCiILzoTBnPy0TebbWaVwxPWiZ7yMGQRLEZXJ-60xY-7B/s400/shivering.gif" width="297" border="0" /></a><br /><div></div><br /><div>skyview.billings.k12.mt.us/.../shivering.gif</div><br /><div></div></div></div></div></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-10610684445964635542008-04-12T22:19:00.000-07:002008-04-12T22:31:31.885-07:00<strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Exercise, Is the Concept Working?</span></strong><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx2-nteWQagMWklEKLap7wHaqB9_ACXAx6H-TX4KEbfM9Gfw78437C2tt5C1wPM3H2VEOtF5wrYU2meQjAWMLkNd48-bZuBOfCCkIPeJF7hyphenhyphenqoh7rmgjyLYeoJ9K3vqPaO7_REExUdnq-r/s1600-h/exercise+funny.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188595673007082770" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx2-nteWQagMWklEKLap7wHaqB9_ACXAx6H-TX4KEbfM9Gfw78437C2tt5C1wPM3H2VEOtF5wrYU2meQjAWMLkNd48-bZuBOfCCkIPeJF7hyphenhyphenqoh7rmgjyLYeoJ9K3vqPaO7_REExUdnq-r/s400/exercise+funny.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://supplementalscience.files.wordpress.com/2007/05/exercise.gif">http://supplementalscience.files.wordpress.com/2007/05/exercise.gif</a><br /><br />I think we have intellectual awareness of the need to exercise. I’m certain we’ve all heard the call, seen the dismal statistics of obese-related health problems . . . and their cost. The estimated total cost of obesity in the United States in 2000 was about $117 billion, that was eight years ago.<br /><br />I would say we all know we should be doing it. So why aren’t we? Here’s some sobering stats:<br /><br />“Since the mid-seventies, the prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased sharply for both adults and children. Data from two NHANES surveys show that among adults aged 20–74 years the prevalence of obesity increased from 15.0% (in the 1976–1980 survey) to 32.9% (in the 2003–2004 survey). The two surveys also show increases in overweight among children and teens. For children aged 2–5 years, the prevalence of overweight increased from 5.0% to 13.9%; for those aged 6–11 years, prevalence increased from 6.5% to 18.8%; and for those aged 12–19 years, prevalence increased from 5.0% to 17.4%.”<br />“Despite the proven benefits of physical activity, more than 50% of U.S. adults do not get enough physical activity to provide health benefits; 24% are not active at all in their leisure time. Activity decreases with age, and sufficient activity is less common among women than men and among those with lower<br />incomes and less education. Insufficient physical activity is not<br />limited to adults. About two-thirds of young people in grades 9–12 are not engaged in recommended levels of physical activity. Daily participation in high school physical education classes dropped from 42% in 1991 to 33% in 2005.” <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/dnpa.htm"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/dnpa.htm</span></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgR7_HXkpMivoJkc7Cj2nUk2kGSODIksM72nugb6BmWUnPLSV_x_h7tHEKn5hp5JwqOIQRuWBZMWsx0z_1tQOOFFoZEg3HQFgphKwmaKN_JuSS8psAdulkifyEf1drxMrmmlOmqIjBc2gZB/s1600-h/lack.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188595673007082786" style="CURSOR: hand" height="376" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgR7_HXkpMivoJkc7Cj2nUk2kGSODIksM72nugb6BmWUnPLSV_x_h7tHEKn5hp5JwqOIQRuWBZMWsx0z_1tQOOFFoZEg3HQFgphKwmaKN_JuSS8psAdulkifyEf1drxMrmmlOmqIjBc2gZB/s400/lack.jpg" width="316" border="0" /></a></p><a href="http://www.aafp.org/fpr/20001100/8_f1.jpg">http://www.aafp.org/fpr/20001100/8_f1.jpg</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below is a map showing the growing rate of obesity in the USA over the last 15 years.</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy3WSfH3ScyETcGKOgTahBADvpgiZ_uiIcSs0TFApk1aYyM2yBRH2t9WWB6xeZdNokZdlIT3_6FXN4x4ii5DuAcXZOEbRB3x2WohXSY25lVH-bzLl9bcFZckV1RMfvqZaYB-ufwSCMhLq-/s1600-h/map+of+fat.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188595677302050098" style="CURSOR: hand" height="400" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy3WSfH3ScyETcGKOgTahBADvpgiZ_uiIcSs0TFApk1aYyM2yBRH2t9WWB6xeZdNokZdlIT3_6FXN4x4ii5DuAcXZOEbRB3x2WohXSY25lVH-bzLl9bcFZckV1RMfvqZaYB-ufwSCMhLq-/s400/map+of+fat.gif" width="529" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/dnpa.htm">http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/dnpa.htm</a><br /><br />I know the things in my world that make exercising difficult. It’s inconvenient, uncomfortable, sweaty, boring, and painful. Now, I realize we don’t have to lift weights to be healthy, and I don’t. There are far less demanding ways to lead an active life without becoming an athlete. The American Diabetes Association has several wonderful suggestions for gently incorporating movement into your day. Even just cleaning your house is a wonderful low-level activity. Getting up to change the channels and mowing the lawn are also suggested. Here’s a good one, playing with your kids.<br />This brings me to the “easy way”. We are creatures of comfort and it is hard to motivate ourselves to work harder than we have to. Most of our economy is based on convenience items: remotes for our TV’s, automobiles for everyone of age, elevators, even men in golf carts to drive you to the big building so you don’t have to walk too far. I’ve seen easy chairs with cup holders and meal trays built right in. Even our food is easier to prepare. Scissors are now a staple in my kitchen so I can cut those bags of frozen dinners open – seemed homemade since I dirtied a pan.<br /><strong>There are so many benefits to exercising regularly:<br /></strong>Physical activity improves quality of life.<br />Physical activity extends longevity, protects against the development of<br />CHD, stroke, hypertension, obesity, non-insulin-dependent diabetes<br />mellitus, osteoporosis, colon cancer, and depression.<br />Physical activity helps maintain full functioning and independence among<br />the elderly.<br /><strong>Relationships between physical activity and improved health include:</strong><br />A reduced oxygen demand at any given level of physical activity.<br />A reduced tendency for blood to form clots where arteries have narrowed.<br />An increased elasticity in the arteries.<br />Changes in the brain and brain chemistry that may improve mood and<br />cognitive functioning.<br />More than 60% of US adults do not engage in the recommended amount<br />of activity.<br />Approximately 25% of US adults are not active at all.<br />A 1993 study concerning causes of death in the US: #1 Tobacco, #2 Lack of<br />exercise/poor diet, #3 Alcohol.<br />Chronic disease costs the US $655 Billion in healthcare costs.<br />In this year, 1.5 million people will have a heart attack in the US and<br />500,000 will die. <a href="http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwfit/physicalactivity.html"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwfit/physicalactivity.html</span></a><br /><br />Gamers now have video games that involve whole body movement, Wii is one. It’s quite popular at the nursing home I work at. With that game, people are moving as though they are playing a sport while holding a little box. This appears as a sport on the TV set and their movements are mimicked by the cartoon character that is playing them. Well, this is a start.<br />How do we get motivated? Peer pressure might help. Through government programs, involved citizens, and media coverage, many people might think again about getting off their you-know-whats. Scotland has many successful programs for activities. The constant for all of the programs is hiring enthusiastic, dedicated individuals to run them. Enthusiasm is contagious. In smaller communities, scheduled walking outings are offered a few times a week and locals need only to find the one that fits their schedule.<br /><br />Encouragement and availability are key factors to participation. Of course, our food chain needs re-vamping as well, but that was our essay in the last unit.Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-36708963423364893552008-04-12T20:03:00.000-07:002008-04-13T11:52:03.174-07:00Unit III Lab Project: Build a Movable Limb<span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;font-size:180%;"><strong>Build a Limb Project</strong></span><br /><div><div><strong><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;font-size:180%;"></span></strong></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">For this project, I will demonstrate how muscles and bones work together to produce movement. For this demo, I will model the arm.</span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:#ff6600;">Some raw materials:</span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9iBRHQtAuip4aB4Ow2P6DpJDl9NkDLPJulyVUdjzZ7putc4DlOXnlnZc9fkp5g2bgxxazsIfgtODll1-sKM-H6ukRjpEBwc8WJh2rCEM8e5XNONJodb3gZaGWe-LLCxROnANhkTwS5N8c/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+008.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188785871338819202" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9iBRHQtAuip4aB4Ow2P6DpJDl9NkDLPJulyVUdjzZ7putc4DlOXnlnZc9fkp5g2bgxxazsIfgtODll1-sKM-H6ukRjpEBwc8WJh2rCEM8e5XNONJodb3gZaGWe-LLCxROnANhkTwS5N8c/s400/Exercise+Lab+008.jpg" border="0" /></a></span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><br /><br /><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:#ff6600;">The backscratch gave his life . . .</span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqoioo9FBXGjoFAofvkZQz6jwvPLBeNzh1fo_otNAF7O9YUVosh7EJGD26HwwXbgImUw6osweAOcVreYmlew-tsJ6TuGq7PfSJ3yNHIHnsNzNBQX4L1Ev-66Ugj_o3N9IffzCRoGhRcD3w/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+009.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188785875633786514" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqoioo9FBXGjoFAofvkZQz6jwvPLBeNzh1fo_otNAF7O9YUVosh7EJGD26HwwXbgImUw6osweAOcVreYmlew-tsJ6TuGq7PfSJ3yNHIHnsNzNBQX4L1Ev-66Ugj_o3N9IffzCRoGhRcD3w/s400/Exercise+Lab+009.jpg" border="0" /></a></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:#ff6600;">The operation: in progress.</span></div><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC7_Qm9lLwO9nlkQWH5Xc93el5Ad82P4MxHx9dMTFei4vFZ1HBJ9QZaArvxf0yjCacLFbGneys7ieuvvfT_aJaLglCtLjujRnrsyPCwiCFDrWxRxvtsqhNEGPstF6B2XzLcmt1DTBm5DBc/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+010.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188785884223721122" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC7_Qm9lLwO9nlkQWH5Xc93el5Ad82P4MxHx9dMTFei4vFZ1HBJ9QZaArvxf0yjCacLFbGneys7ieuvvfT_aJaLglCtLjujRnrsyPCwiCFDrWxRxvtsqhNEGPstF6B2XzLcmt1DTBm5DBc/s400/Exercise+Lab+010.jpg" border="0" /></a></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:#ff6600;">After careful planning and assembling, the patient experiences - movement!</span><br /><br /><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwtLGGflVoGhVUmcA9bFj-13FGfdPW5jPWKogoRX631jhVvWONk6fxcqNGqojwI2ub_unlM0WEXbAk0kO2DVA' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div><div><p>An explanation:</p><div><div>The motor neuron (white balloon in the hand of the operator/surgeon) signals the bicep. You can see the muscle responding to the stimuli by contracting. As it contracts, the diameter of the muscle increases, as mass remains the same (is it becomes shorter, it must get larger somewhere else). If this were more anatomically correct, the muscle would also be harder during contraction. The shortening of the muscle and pulling draws the forearm upwards, pivoting on the elbow joint.</div></div></div><div> </div></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Some stills . . .</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2MD-3Zqed5AMOHixFxDbLy1dC8tuIar_s4c38-ay5mHoSyJ8Qcr3F5OBs9KmVtVsMfEflGLHiqrif09oEoSogufYgy3kRtW19SHLkeyV0k7r231ts42qLj2iEM8-laqSOk7WYNKpa-208/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+006.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188794336719359666" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2MD-3Zqed5AMOHixFxDbLy1dC8tuIar_s4c38-ay5mHoSyJ8Qcr3F5OBs9KmVtVsMfEflGLHiqrif09oEoSogufYgy3kRtW19SHLkeyV0k7r231ts42qLj2iEM8-laqSOk7WYNKpa-208/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+006.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi97OkiynLiptOM92aWHiR7t-E7aXjqKIvHQpTQP2w7VxFfBOVrrqleg_wz8IYYxVfno3-NHgXKIhOiYMKN6xpm8cgY4Iz5RhBWl3ov_X1OKOITzlmen_Wcazl7O1z2BzexfaIm4d3ALiPT/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+007.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188794341014326978" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi97OkiynLiptOM92aWHiR7t-E7aXjqKIvHQpTQP2w7VxFfBOVrrqleg_wz8IYYxVfno3-NHgXKIhOiYMKN6xpm8cgY4Iz5RhBWl3ov_X1OKOITzlmen_Wcazl7O1z2BzexfaIm4d3ALiPT/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+007.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /></div><p> </p><br /><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Close up of motor unit</span><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbO-41mysmShTRBrzecYTf-Sj-l8Pv-1_dEKBl_GkfjW2fD97Og9xkmPO9N29zdUZ3ULLfmK4ujNfp_L7cIsmR_sxmH_F0563BzbDOJxG-NGylH6DVjbh4oFcI3XJA-ZtWrK1EchFBdnte/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+010.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188796668886601426" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbO-41mysmShTRBrzecYTf-Sj-l8Pv-1_dEKBl_GkfjW2fD97Og9xkmPO9N29zdUZ3ULLfmK4ujNfp_L7cIsmR_sxmH_F0563BzbDOJxG-NGylH6DVjbh4oFcI3XJA-ZtWrK1EchFBdnte/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+010.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div>It's hard to see the action potential coarsing along the axon, there is a slight purple color to indicate that between the schwann cells. This potential will result in a release of ACh from the axon terminals. The neurotransmitter will then bind to the receptors in the sarcolemma. Then calcium will be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and will bind to troponin on the actin filament. </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAFVIwKOuLiLMkYLWV0rSDZqz3PYsYgojQJX6-2Kp81bEhk_zUJ9eW2mESq5_tQoRoR2zJiaevT8wu6kfHXa528A9C4ryKtG6smFjDGMcuQR1E2-SklYptAPJYAIVLBtoCbEG0q7ZUcqXw/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+002.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188796673181568738" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAFVIwKOuLiLMkYLWV0rSDZqz3PYsYgojQJX6-2Kp81bEhk_zUJ9eW2mESq5_tQoRoR2zJiaevT8wu6kfHXa528A9C4ryKtG6smFjDGMcuQR1E2-SklYptAPJYAIVLBtoCbEG0q7ZUcqXw/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+002.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_GPhgUxeGfAdPPxrEeiWfkA8Ccvrb2jBQobnlvv5Uu_ych0taPToTFqXMdRxyVtcM5ZBUswpT0i4Tmkc3OtR_RR4oNrQXNBk1a9BJyYx6bCykFnVYuk6H0cUa4x47Y8-9chOCIyQOJR85/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+003.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188796681771503346" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_GPhgUxeGfAdPPxrEeiWfkA8Ccvrb2jBQobnlvv5Uu_ych0taPToTFqXMdRxyVtcM5ZBUswpT0i4Tmkc3OtR_RR4oNrQXNBk1a9BJyYx6bCykFnVYuk6H0cUa4x47Y8-9chOCIyQOJR85/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+003.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div>This deposition of calcium causes the troponin to move and expose the binding sites for the myosin. </div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Relaxed state of sarcomere</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgy29RZFCOTMqiZePhhcC-wuiIFQHRsn43PEMNEF7mFfELVcGccdwY0PKPwS8gtB1eNVmK5PGc8mUqW1z-2sJdq-7XiIxhE5otA5TkoTgJN9fMcMOHsSwdoiRIXHRguNT1eXiJaUTJx1xZW/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+004.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188796686066470658" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgy29RZFCOTMqiZePhhcC-wuiIFQHRsn43PEMNEF7mFfELVcGccdwY0PKPwS8gtB1eNVmK5PGc8mUqW1z-2sJdq-7XiIxhE5otA5TkoTgJN9fMcMOHsSwdoiRIXHRguNT1eXiJaUTJx1xZW/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+004.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div>The myosin has heads that will extend to the binding sites on the actin forming a cross-bridge and will pull the actin closer together. ADP is utilized for this action and ATP is needed for the heads to release from the binding sites. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Contracted state of sarcomere</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrrDdsJdRAzvlgiQ5QoA2RsVso5_Wr1PBrCbPO3z7gP6mBg2jKjuXpXXf7Os2WlzskiZucJSo3K279rAoFpBWHGVPIIJgI0uPIMjRqgqtoP2PlEnjDSBau1fEa1DgLL5p2UkDSt_G0AtUB/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+new+005.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188800164989980434" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrrDdsJdRAzvlgiQ5QoA2RsVso5_Wr1PBrCbPO3z7gP6mBg2jKjuXpXXf7Os2WlzskiZucJSo3K279rAoFpBWHGVPIIJgI0uPIMjRqgqtoP2PlEnjDSBau1fEa1DgLL5p2UkDSt_G0AtUB/s400/Exercise+Lab+new+005.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div> </div><div>All of these actions happen at an amazing rate. Just think about how often you move without even thinking about it. Knowing the mechanics and chemical reactions needed to move one fibril makes my head spin. Even as I'm typing this report, I am amazed (can't think of a better word) by the effortless motions of my fingers in leiu of the magnitude of activities that are needed to accomplish it. </div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-86049249250413639812008-04-12T19:00:00.000-07:002008-04-12T20:02:11.070-07:00Movement Lab<div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;font-size:130%;"><strong>Movement Lab</strong></span><br /></div><div> </div><div><br /></div><p><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">This is an attempt to explain how temperature and fatigue affects the function of muscle. This is important so we know what is needed to optimize our performance.</span></p><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;color:#ff6600;">1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)? </span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">The muscle shortened.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">The muscle diameter enlarged.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">The muscle became hard. </span></div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><div><br /></div><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.</span> </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTsiUGmh6oUBiO_B_hMv73EJWOqWnMD5-q2D5k7rEi9JLGhwF9xP8Gwrrl1JperfDxFfnPsUe33QXsx2wqUU2jHSYSFhs3p2PNXupqtAGNJ5IgzaGfAiPG8qUPQ3n3JPnzMfCtEakS34KX/s1600-h/fists.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188544661680508082" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTsiUGmh6oUBiO_B_hMv73EJWOqWnMD5-q2D5k7rEi9JLGhwF9xP8Gwrrl1JperfDxFfnPsUe33QXsx2wqUU2jHSYSFhs3p2PNXupqtAGNJ5IgzaGfAiPG8qUPQ3n3JPnzMfCtEakS34KX/s400/fists.gif" border="0" /></a></p></span><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">I imagine that most people had a greater difference. My hands are always cold (Raynauld's Phenomenon). The cold water caused the muscles to ache and respond slowly.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#ff6600;">3. In Figure 3, make a line graph of your results of the fatigue experiment. Be sure to fill in the values on the vertical axis.</span> </span></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioAxcEcftZRwkNAYcL1Zza-mRv7V6P7V2j_85vvllqy2JQ_jbdDQw5xg_WdftpkwviOfhEbFxBDCrJapA50RL6TD_42pgqNwyRMAIz1oElXB_cnCCoXW23WxumiEha8KgXlGSp_AZtcdiH/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+012.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188558805007813890" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioAxcEcftZRwkNAYcL1Zza-mRv7V6P7V2j_85vvllqy2JQ_jbdDQw5xg_WdftpkwviOfhEbFxBDCrJapA50RL6TD_42pgqNwyRMAIz1oElXB_cnCCoXW23WxumiEha8KgXlGSp_AZtcdiH/s400/Exercise+Lab+012.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSJVHb0bVDpr4ICm3tr6C-YEZyIe86Ph14ejTXDiDYI8uiSvgdp2wQJ8LdqhFPR2ngBZQkxNzopA1NrUylT7Y2ARkMU8SYzL2HBuhTDBCnR0OS_JSyiCb3Vmu3qrnVL5CAApDTjr3Uq4gt/s1600-h/squeezes.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188544665975475394" style="CURSOR: hand" height="376" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSJVHb0bVDpr4ICm3tr6C-YEZyIe86Ph14ejTXDiDYI8uiSvgdp2wQJ8LdqhFPR2ngBZQkxNzopA1NrUylT7Y2ARkMU8SYzL2HBuhTDBCnR0OS_JSyiCb3Vmu3qrnVL5CAApDTjr3Uq4gt/s400/squeezes.gif" width="544" border="0" /></a></p><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Number of trials indicated above</span><br /><br />Maybe the reps leveled off because my hand was warming up from exercising.</div><div><br /></div><div></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinZcTxl9cHISwE23t5YWkBTcY-2_mfcWq28kjsRQz6nofhyphenhyphenSLBsvUsJj5QRHFClLnUaPcwAZ-zp3O6pJj7i-vobNkZ9ZvkyGGxsRGhaFH-K9Wc6eOuUOfCAvOux_mwd3N4zwbgGXghS_jq/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+011.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188558800712846578" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinZcTxl9cHISwE23t5YWkBTcY-2_mfcWq28kjsRQz6nofhyphenhyphenSLBsvUsJj5QRHFClLnUaPcwAZ-zp3O6pJj7i-vobNkZ9ZvkyGGxsRGhaFH-K9Wc6eOuUOfCAvOux_mwd3N4zwbgGXghS_jq/s400/Exercise+Lab+011.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.</span> </span></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div>I quickly felt the aching and slowing of response to continous squeezing. Initially the Creatine Phosphate pathway was utilized by the muscles, but this is good for only 5 seconds. Next, the muscles obtain ATP by fermentation, which produces a build-up of lactate. This is felt as aching in your muscles and is an anaerobic metabolism. I believe that the process was not able to keep up with the demand and that is why I could not maintain faster repetitions. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below is an interesting chart showing how our muscles use the energy stores and methods.</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFD1ZTI9UZyhPOiEYbx8mGLdOG3YqMuQr1P6ixydicn7wfH7LY-r3IkTuAASbCryQiEdLsxJV_1B4ozvE0_jM5Rf0pQVkpAWg6hY1Hn_G7ZxO8q2n7m8vP3WFYSPXN9g9YRsYSBy0l09WM/s1600-h/muscle15.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5188552169283341538" style="CURSOR: hand" height="387" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFD1ZTI9UZyhPOiEYbx8mGLdOG3YqMuQr1P6ixydicn7wfH7LY-r3IkTuAASbCryQiEdLsxJV_1B4ozvE0_jM5Rf0pQVkpAWg6hY1Hn_G7ZxO8q2n7m8vP3WFYSPXN9g9YRsYSBy0l09WM/s400/muscle15.gif" width="514" border="0" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%206/muscle13.gif">www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%206/muscle13.gif</a></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-63714597886036194322008-04-02T14:40:00.000-07:002008-04-02T15:15:00.000-07:00Compendium: Chapters 13-14<div><div><strong>Chapter 13: Nervous System<br /></strong><br /><strong>13.1 Overview of the Nervous System<br /></strong>Consists of:<br />Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord<br />Peripheral Nervous System: nerves<br />Three functions:<br />Receives sensory input: internal and external<br />Integration: all inputs reviewed simultaneously<br />Generates motor output: stimulates muscles and glands<br />Nervous Tissue is made up of 2 types of cells:<br />Neurons: transmit signals within the nervous system<br />Three types:<br />Sensory Neuron: transfers messages from receptors to the Central Nervous System<br />Sensory Receptors: detects changes in the environment<br />Interneuron: located in the CNS and receives messages from the sensory neurons.<br />Motor Neuron: transmits from the CNS and generates motor and gland responses<br />Neuroglia: support and nourish neurons<br />Neurons have three parts:<br />Cell body: contains the nucleus and organelles<br />Dendrites: filigree-like extensions that receive signals from receptors or other neurons<br />Axon: conducts impulses<br />The Myelin Sheath is a protective covering along long axons of nerve cells. These are impartial coverings with gaps called the nodes of Ranvier. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Anatomy of a nerve</span><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVfsbne5o2Ja8-_iNMUVxUG_mo6XOA89KUtDU0yW12F_XiSD392EZEZeKBoe3ky7KAsn-XLNqQS2uMnPRAnewHeawZsH5JAZF5A9np70qC50nsHxDoN6X2QhnQaLn3l7QeVXJh880lS9y_/s1600-h/myelin+sheath.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184771269911674818" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVfsbne5o2Ja8-_iNMUVxUG_mo6XOA89KUtDU0yW12F_XiSD392EZEZeKBoe3ky7KAsn-XLNqQS2uMnPRAnewHeawZsH5JAZF5A9np70qC50nsHxDoN6X2QhnQaLn3l7QeVXJh880lS9y_/s400/myelin+sheath.gif" border="0" /></a></div><div><a href="http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/bembook/02/fi/0201.gif">http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/bembook/02/fi/0201.gif</a> </div><div> </div><div>Interestingly, gray matter in the CNS is gray because the axons are not myelinated and white matter is. The myelin sheath protects and provides a passageway for regeneration if a nerve is severed. Multiple sclerosis and leukodystophries are disorders affecting the myelin sheath.<br />The nerve impulses are an exchange of ionic concentrations across the axon’s membrane. Sodium-potassium pumps maintain a potassium concentration greater than sodium within the cell giving it polarization and it is at its resting potential. When a stimulis is generated, the polarity changes along the course of the axon from node to node and the message is relayed along the PNS to the CNS and back to the muscles or glands. This change in polarity is called action potential. Damaged or unmyelinated axons move the impulse much slower. The intensity of pain or feeling depends on how often the nerve impulses are given in a short span of time. As soon as the impulse has passed, the ionic displacement returns to the resting potential because of repolarization.<br />The synapses are gaps that separate the sending from receiving neurons. Neurotransmitters are molecules stored in synaptic vessels that help transmit signals across these gaps. There are over 100 substances that have that capability. Here’s a sampling of just a few and what they effect:<br /><a title="Acetylcholine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> - voluntary movement of the muscles<br /><a title="Norepinephrine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a> - wakefulness or arousal<br /><a title="Dopamine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine">Dopamine</a> - voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love<br /><a title="Serotonin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin">Serotonin</a> - memory, emotions, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation<br /><a title="Gamma aminobutyric acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_aminobutyric_acid">GABA</a> - inhibition of motor neurons<br /><a title="Glycine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine">Glycine</a> - spinal reflexes and motor behaviour<br /><a title="Neuromodulator" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromodulator">Neuromodulators</a> - sensory transmission - especially pain<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter</a><br />A neuron has many different synapses with other neurons. Some are excitatory, other inhibitory. The response will depend on which signals the most.<br /><br /><strong>13.2 The Central Nervous System<br /></strong><br />The spinal cord and the brain comprise the CNS. Meninges are membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain and spinal cord as it fills the spaces in between the meninges and fills the ventricles of the brain. Inflammation of the meninges is meningitis.<br />There are four ventricles which are reservoirs for Cerebrospinal fluid. When these ventricles are blocked from draining, increased pressure can cause brain damage.</div><div> </div><div> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDF1LVaRsQRj-gMaszRBhNeXxjfbNsg8t-8cnXKvh_BrFd-_y256KTeopS1EcA-kpIJ9s9Dr8d1BHbpH6tS5kdeauWYktGyq85Nyp-rSnxxAruH9fV4hEGPYv1uRps2o4iZQtJBe9G2_NI/s1600-h/Ventricles_of_the_Brain.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184771265616707506" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDF1LVaRsQRj-gMaszRBhNeXxjfbNsg8t-8cnXKvh_BrFd-_y256KTeopS1EcA-kpIJ9s9Dr8d1BHbpH6tS5kdeauWYktGyq85Nyp-rSnxxAruH9fV4hEGPYv1uRps2o4iZQtJBe9G2_NI/s400/Ventricles_of_the_Brain.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.medicalook.com/systems_images/Ventricles_of_the_Brain.gif">http://www.medicalook.com/systems_images/Ventricles_of_the_Brain.gif</a><br />White matter and gray matter make up the CNS.<br />The spinal cord originates from the base of the brain and extends down the vertebral canal. The nerves from the spinal cord extend from the cord through the openings between the vertebrae. There are softer discs which separate the vertebrae, when they slip, compression of a nerve may result in pain. Gray matter is the very core of the spinal cord which is surrounded by white matter. Dorsal and ventral nerves branch off the spinal cord and will join to form the spinal nerve which is part of the PNS.<br />All communication between the brain and PNS must transverse via the spinal cord. It is theorized that “gates” in the spinal cord regulate the flow of pain messages to the brain.<br />Severance of the spinal cord will “disengage” the functions and sensations of the body whose signals travel through that level in the cord. For example, a thoracic injury could render someone paralyzed and if the severance was higher the arms may be involved as well.<br />Some signals “arc” in the spinal cord and these responses are immediate and involuntary. We call these reflexes. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Lobes of a cerebral hemisphere</span></div><div> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj80oaUhelVB8lwufaMNVEKsN8k1ej3HTWBrCPL4hbEbIomdpBdMoKdxkdUFc-dNyuizOyy_YXK94h-by_RrtW2fGPgJkY98KMKvdjcHvFePheP3ojRs48sg4Lo87FR69Brn77Qt9S3wqTu/s1600-h/brain.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184771261321740194" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj80oaUhelVB8lwufaMNVEKsN8k1ej3HTWBrCPL4hbEbIomdpBdMoKdxkdUFc-dNyuizOyy_YXK94h-by_RrtW2fGPgJkY98KMKvdjcHvFePheP3ojRs48sg4Lo87FR69Brn77Qt9S3wqTu/s400/brain.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/body_guide/reftext/images/anatomy_brain.jpg">http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/body_guide/reftext/images/anatomy_brain.jpg</a><br />The brain is separated into three sections.<br />The Cerebrum is the largest section and is divided into two hemispheres. These are distinctly divided by a deep fissure running from front to back along the top of the head. The cerebrum is divided into lobes (see image for location). The cerebral cortex is a covers the cerebral hemispheres with gray matter and has certain functions according to region:<br />Frontal: It is concerned with emotions, reasoning, planning, movement, and parts of speech. It is also involved in purposeful acts such as creativity, judgment, problem solving, and planning. Movement of the hand takes up a large portion of this motor area.<br />Parietal: Processes nerve impulses related to the senses, such as touch, pain, taste, pressure, and temperature. They also have language functions.<br />Temporal: The temporal lobes are responsible for hearing, memory, meaning, and language. They also play a role in emotion and learning. The temporal lobes are concerned with interpreting and processing auditory stimuli.<br />Occipital: The occipital lobe is involved with the brain's ability to recognize objects. It is responsible for our vision. <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/J002391/functions.html"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://library.thinkquest.org/J002391/functions.html</span></a><br />The white matter is tissue through which messages are sent from different areas of gray matter.<br />The Diencephalon is located centrally in the brain around the third ventricle. There are three regions within:<br />The hypothalamus regulates hunger, sleep, thirst, body temperature and water balance.<br />The thalamus receives all sensory inputs except smell and sends it to corresponding areas of the cerebrum.<br />The pineal gland secretes melatonin which regulates sleep rhythms and may also regulate the onset of puberty. </div><div><br /></div><div></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Perhaps result of hyperactive pineal gland . . .</span></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY1_r7OJxMB3fkPf-56V4PHlMj_bjIKRWU3JSLwJhre2bjTeh1WbcW2DQ3jCgE1dIXLmWH9hvgYsCUEFVL7Th89Jvl-hVPr5qFo2pcs15EHzwMldAEHHYff-1NUXwN2tdQ2KyKp-RrtH7z/s1600-h/sleeping-chinese.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184768272024502162" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY1_r7OJxMB3fkPf-56V4PHlMj_bjIKRWU3JSLwJhre2bjTeh1WbcW2DQ3jCgE1dIXLmWH9hvgYsCUEFVL7Th89Jvl-hVPr5qFo2pcs15EHzwMldAEHHYff-1NUXwN2tdQ2KyKp-RrtH7z/s400/sleeping-chinese.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://neatorama.cachefly.net/images/2007-10/sleeping-chinese.jpg">http://neatorama.cachefly.net/images/2007-10/sleeping-chinese.jpg</a><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>The cerebellum is comprised mostly of white matter surrounded by gray matter. It is separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle. It receives input regarding the position of body parts and from the cerebral cortex about where these parts should be. After integrating this information, it will send motor impulses so we maintain balance and posture.<br />The brain stem is composed of four things:<br />Mid brain: transfers information between the cerebrum and spinal cord and some reflexes.<br />Pons: means “bridge” and transfers information between cerebellum and the rest of the CNS. It also has some reflex responses and regulates the rate of breathing.<br />Medulla Oblongata: maintains several reflexes affecting coughing, vomiting, sneezing, hiccupping, swallowing, and heartbeat, breathing and vasoconstriction.<br />Reticular Formation: (lines the brain stem) keeps you awake and will react to startling sounds/events. Damage to this area will render one comatose.<br /><br /><strong>13.3 The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions</strong><br /><br />Limbic system structures are involved in many of our emotions and motivations, particularly those that are related to survival. Such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related to sexual behavior. The limbic system is also involved in feelings of pleasure that are related to our survival, such as those experienced from eating and sex. Certain structures of the limbic system are involved in memory as well. <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa042205a.htm"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa042205a.htm</span></a> </div><div><br />The amygdale lends emotional overtones to our experiences. The fight or fright response is initiated by the amydgala. This response can be overridden by the frontal cortex from which we have judgment. Old memories can elicit emotional responses because of the amydgala.<br />The hippocampus helps us learn and remember.<br />We have different types of memory:<br />Short-term: originates in the pre-frontal region.<br />Long-term: a mixture of facts (semantic) and people or events (episodic). These memories are stored in the areas of the brain where the events originated.<br />Skill memory: repetitive activities become memorized.<br /><br /><strong>13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System</strong><br /><br />The peripheral nervous system is the nervous system outside of the CNS. We have 12 pairs of cranial nerves that originate from the brain and are primarily concerned with the neck, face and head. There is one nerve, the vagus nerve, which runs to nearly all the internal organs as well as the throat. The spinal nerves are paired from both sides of the spinal cord. They are mixed nerves containing both sensory and motor fibers. Their placement determines which region of the body they serve.<br />The somatic system includes all nerves controlling the muscular system and external sensory receptors. The reflex arc is the pathway from the sensory receptors to the spinal cord to the motor neuron to the effector which elicits an immediate response without thinking about it. Your brain also receives the signal only to perceive the pain or stimulus.<br />The autonomic system is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.<br />The sympathetic system is the pathway for fight or flight responses. It increases heart rate and dilates the bronchi and shuts down the digestive tract. We don’t need that to rob us of energy for the crisis we’re in.<br />The parasympathetic system promotes relaxation and digestion. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1nRaiBeoE0WYzE18wwBaJEoF-hlgUI9QZ0yKVnC8tiZKN5lEgishiVdv7XiqR-ssBy0pYMnpIA85-DGR8TzqtYUnOVliw7WV5PNMXfQ0AGNZFz_Zq6E1N9MfsycHkWAGGBtHYQqPHRaxt/s1600-h/autonomic-system.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184768267729534850" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1nRaiBeoE0WYzE18wwBaJEoF-hlgUI9QZ0yKVnC8tiZKN5lEgishiVdv7XiqR-ssBy0pYMnpIA85-DGR8TzqtYUnOVliw7WV5PNMXfQ0AGNZFz_Zq6E1N9MfsycHkWAGGBtHYQqPHRaxt/s400/autonomic-system.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.ptsdforum.org/images/autonomic-system.gif">http://www.ptsdforum.org/images/autonomic-system.gif</a><br /><br /><strong>13.5 Drug Abuse<br /></strong><br />Drugs used for altered perceptions and feelings affect either our limbic system or promote or decrease the action of some neurotransmitters. A stimulant will excite neurons and depressants will diminish the likelihood of excitation. We have a reward circuit in our brain that equates activities such as eating as being pleasurable. Substance abusers will take drugs to experience this feeling and even neglect legitimate physical requirements. Addictions can be psychological or physical.<br />Alcohol is the most common and most accepted drug. It crosses cell membranes and damages several tissues. Liver damage is incurred from chronically removing this toxin. Alcohol is a depressant and will affect coordination, lead to a feeling of relaxation, a lowering of inhibitions, slurred speech and possibly vomiting. Coma or death can occur when ETOH levels are too high. Chronic consumption causes brain damage, decreases brain size and increase the size of the ventricles.<br />Nicotine is a stimulant. It increases skeletal muscle activity, elevates heart rate and BP and peristalsis. Nicotine is a physical and psychological addiction. 80-90% of smokers will fail at quitting.<br />Cocaine is a stimulant that interferes with the re-uptake of dopamine at synapses. Users are treated to a rush of well-being lasting up to 30 minutes. Between binges, one may experience fatigue and irritability. Crack is a form of cocaine that is smoked. This brings a quicker, more intense high.<br />Methamphetamine is a synthetic, easily made drug. It is often made in home-based labs. This is also available in two forms – powder and crystal (smoked). It is a stimulant and will elevate the mood of the user. Some people will become violent if they become agitated. Chronic use may result in paranoia and hallucinations. Ecstasy is similar to Meth but will not cause hallucinations.<br />Heroin comes from poppies. It is a depressant and an opiate and has pain-killing effects also delivering a rush and euphoria. It can be snorted, smoked or injected and is the most abused opiate. Opiates cloud thinking, trigger the reward circuit, and can cause nausea and vomiting. Needle sharing is the primary source of hepatitis and HIV/AIDS. Over 300,000 people use heroin every year.<br /></div></div><div><div>Marijuana comes from the cannabis sativa. It is common to consider the effects of marijuana as mild. Some euphoria may occur along with changes in judgment. Regular use can cause cravings. Heavy users may experience more severe reactions such as, hallucinations and paranoia. It is a psychoactive drug.</div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Loves his greens . . .</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheup-3yOlOsm0xbeG4A8lH_OD5ap8mTpUMI-QZOC2uvn7M_EBuoH3qMxZAOZO-wE4vXQ4_SkmprUvtZbSxsvhKw8lv6xi2wHzoaPPJp6oiTfu1FyNhkRqikctq_AbBqIc7Z6BFeVvYYl5k/s1600-h/cannabis.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184768263434567538" style="CURSOR: hand" height="243" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheup-3yOlOsm0xbeG4A8lH_OD5ap8mTpUMI-QZOC2uvn7M_EBuoH3qMxZAOZO-wE4vXQ4_SkmprUvtZbSxsvhKw8lv6xi2wHzoaPPJp6oiTfu1FyNhkRqikctq_AbBqIc7Z6BFeVvYYl5k/s400/cannabis.jpg" width="263" border="0" /></a></div><div><a href="http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/">http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/</a><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Chapter 14: Senses</span></strong><br /><br /><strong>14.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations<br /></strong><br />These are dendrites that detect types of stimuli. Exteroceptors detect external stimuli and Interoceptors detect internal stimuli. There are different types of exteroceptors:<br />Chemoreceptors – taste and smell. Sensors in the carotids and aorta sense pH and adjustments are made if it is out of range.<br />Pain receptors – dendrites exposed to chemicals released by damaged cells.<br />Photoreceptor – react to light (eyes).<br />Mechanoreceptors – sense of touch. Pressure that is felt by gravity or sound waves (hair cells). Proprioceptors sense the position of our limbs.<br />Thermoreceptors – stimulated by changes in temperature.<br />These receptors will integrate all signals prior to sending. Sometimes adaptation will occur and you may notice a decrease sensation. This usually happens when the stimulis is chronic, such as an aroma which may be strong at first exposure, but will not be as noticeable after a while.<br /><br /><strong>14.2 Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors </strong><br /><br />Proprioceptors detect the position of our limbs. Cutaneous receptors are located in the epidermis and the dermis. These detect touch, pressure, pain and temperature. Internal organs have pain receptors (nociceptors) that are stimulated by chemicals released from damaged cells. Interestly, Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of one type of these chemicals.<br /><br /><strong>14.3 Senses of Taste and Smell<br /></strong><br />We have approximately 3,000 taste buds located mostly on our tongue. There are a few scattered about on our hard palate, pharynx, and epiglottis. Different areas on our tongue detect different types of tastes. </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Areas of tastes and anatomy of the tongue's surface</span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyvjx3g229VV9IftgYobnCUObsk65eLw1yXmw4NgIR88LMJfY9PSBJ9RuqWiR-FdwjCcPaj_Bwx8yl6LB2cOlv-NxvYAEea8-pcozfrKjwYh5Fddd3PZonT7nqluZyEoyl0pRgJYX9LYBO/s1600-h/taste+buds.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184768259139600226" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyvjx3g229VV9IftgYobnCUObsk65eLw1yXmw4NgIR88LMJfY9PSBJ9RuqWiR-FdwjCcPaj_Bwx8yl6LB2cOlv-NxvYAEea8-pcozfrKjwYh5Fddd3PZonT7nqluZyEoyl0pRgJYX9LYBO/s400/taste+buds.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.faqs.org/health/images/uchr_02_img0218.jpg">http://www.faqs.org/health/images/uchr_02_img0218.jpg</a></div><div><br /></div><div><br /><br />What we actually taste is a result of the cortex combining all the flavors and smells to give the interpretation. 80-90% of what we taste is attributed to what we smell. Olfactory cells are located high in the nasal cavity. These are protein receptors and react to certain molecules. Our sense of smell is also connected to our limbic system and that is why certain smells trigger memories and emotional responses.<br />As we age, these cells decrease in number and sensitivity.<br /><br /><strong>14.4 Sense of Vision</strong> </div><div> </div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Here's lookin' at you, kid.</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaZcBU4iZfXcq5Zx9Ek6KKgiAYZggvuQF-k0ygAtNqMSAGWVnBSUnLMl9VGmwIt7Y8b4q_Qi7kym9tD1H5FmbSFrW01Gx6EVSbFRtEEBmxwatjaMZEyRD5MpqWl1XQkNBCRggfKm5rsUx7/s1600-h/eyes.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184766914814836562" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaZcBU4iZfXcq5Zx9Ek6KKgiAYZggvuQF-k0ygAtNqMSAGWVnBSUnLMl9VGmwIt7Y8b4q_Qi7kym9tD1H5FmbSFrW01Gx6EVSbFRtEEBmxwatjaMZEyRD5MpqWl1XQkNBCRggfKm5rsUx7/s400/eyes.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://blogofunny.blogspot.com/2007/07/eyesight.html" target="_top">blogofunny.blogspot.com/2007/07/eyesight.html</a><br /><br />The eyeball is a globe whose outer mantel is composed of 3 layers. The sclera (white of the eye), Choroid (vascular and absorbs light), and the retina (contains sensory receptors).<br />In the front of the eye, the sclera becomes the cornea or the window of the eye. The Choroid becomes the iris, the colored part of your eye which regulates how much light enters the eyeball. The choroid also is behind the iris and will change the shape of the lens for focusing. This lens separates the anterior and posterior compartments. The aqueous humor is a liquid which fills the chamber of the anterior eye. The pressure of this fluid is regulated via ducts and when these ducts are blocked, increased pressure can cause nerve damage. This is called glaucoma. The gelatinous fluid in the posterior chamber is called vitreous humor. The retina has rod (light sensitive) and cone cells (color sensitive). We have up to 150 million rod cells and 6 million cone cells. The stimuli from these cells pass to bipolar and ganglion cells and then along the optic nerve to the visual cortex where more integration occurs. We have a blind spot in each eye which occurs where the optic nerve exits the eye. These are not the same location for both eyes and therefore, it is not noticeable when both eyes are open.<br />Misshapened eyeballs alter vision. Elongated ones cause distance to become blurry and shortened ones cause near objects to be blurry. Some are uneven causing astigmatism.<br /><br /><strong>14.5 Sense of Hearing </strong><br /><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2nItiKCCNOLEiVx947QOI06ReATNd3t3tXKJh6lr8zm1fSHoPVzaMkK4EoYAPe9lSe9QK7f5zrP_K-r4r421oR9uJ7yo_cXRDOidq-eqXvGLW0d4SmRYzmdVnZFHznH061mXOj-c198MV/s1600-h/ear_diagram_lg.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184766910519869250" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2nItiKCCNOLEiVx947QOI06ReATNd3t3tXKJh6lr8zm1fSHoPVzaMkK4EoYAPe9lSe9QK7f5zrP_K-r4r421oR9uJ7yo_cXRDOidq-eqXvGLW0d4SmRYzmdVnZFHznH061mXOj-c198MV/s400/ear_diagram_lg.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.vestibular.org/images/ear_diagram_lg.gif">http://www.vestibular.org/images/ear_diagram_lg.gif</a></span> </div><div><br />The pinna is the part of the ear we see. Inside are several structures that contribute to hearing and balance. Sweat glands in the upper wall of the canal produce wax which reduces the amount of substances that enter our ear. The ear drum (tympanic membrane) is the beginning of the middle ear and ends at the round window. The inner ear is fluid-filled. Sound waves enter the auditory canal and their slight vibration causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. This movement is picked up the malleus, incus and stapes which will amplify the signal 20X. The stapes will strike the membrane over the oval window and this vibration will be passed to the fluid in the cochlea. Little hairs in the cochlea will bend and send signals along the cochlear nerve to the auditory cortex. Loud noises cause increased stimulation. </div><div><br /></div><div>14.6 Sense of Equilibrium<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Location of Cupula in Semicircular Canal</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDlbJhBLMqLlhXgJYWBUvyqITwH6m-r_7Xx1YlOc_87ITrFvLnKZ4oGQXEgR3YPVgBdqDIVbetdrj8GwFQPrbDaIESYtejy-g0KmVkcmw2QRosaVw70Kaz7LkrEY2xHDl2ySEaLkWM4PlC/s1600-h/semicircular+canals.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184766906224901938" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDlbJhBLMqLlhXgJYWBUvyqITwH6m-r_7Xx1YlOc_87ITrFvLnKZ4oGQXEgR3YPVgBdqDIVbetdrj8GwFQPrbDaIESYtejy-g0KmVkcmw2QRosaVw70Kaz7LkrEY2xHDl2ySEaLkWM4PlC/s400/semicircular+canals.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://mems.eng.uci.edu/Personnel/jiayin/main.h3.jpg">http://mems.eng.uci.edu/Personnel/jiayin/main.h3.jpg</a><br /><br />Mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals detect motion. The cupula will bend as fluid is displaced by movement and receptors signal the change of position. The utricle and saccule contain little hair cells which will bend with head movements as well. If we suddenly stop a dizzying ride, the cupula move slowly and our brain still thinks we’re spinning when our eyes clearly show we are not, causing dizziness.<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">When do we get too old for swings?</span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisIcyVeFh3taNOYj459GGK49RTMm3m7eYz9MswCvbuglzREYIbceGGMShWklzkpHZ5UqC-EOER_BOjP7MuyYsvpPCnpoqzqrKzT_emWCZ6qs0pduwMpjG2ks01C4XB8EZt4tVmNQa-iY7W/s1600-h/dizzy.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184766897634967330" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisIcyVeFh3taNOYj459GGK49RTMm3m7eYz9MswCvbuglzREYIbceGGMShWklzkpHZ5UqC-EOER_BOjP7MuyYsvpPCnpoqzqrKzT_emWCZ6qs0pduwMpjG2ks01C4XB8EZt4tVmNQa-iY7W/s400/dizzy.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">http://www.balanceandmobility.com/patient_info/images/8.jpg</span></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-70188940412342066772008-04-02T11:17:00.000-07:002008-04-02T11:49:46.317-07:00Neurophysiology Lab<strong><span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff6600;">The Leech</span></strong><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2wOJuLuivBXN3dPUA27pCe9jKd87J7FndnHq-VmIiR497_6VF-JQb4g1FeKckCoKUUwuqqU24HxSO2i2wGcw56wVdUy_a1tso7By7JoS6XTqqPNeTe3R9gKDr1bDLhPO7rndndQN3hqab/s1600-h/leech.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184721431111171858" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2wOJuLuivBXN3dPUA27pCe9jKd87J7FndnHq-VmIiR497_6VF-JQb4g1FeKckCoKUUwuqqU24HxSO2i2wGcw56wVdUy_a1tso7By7JoS6XTqqPNeTe3R9gKDr1bDLhPO7rndndQN3hqab/s400/leech.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><div><div><a href="http://www.scientificillustrator.com/illustration/insect/leech.html">http://www.scientificillustrator.com/illustration/insect/leech.html</a><br /><br />In this lab, I will be measuring the resting (0mV) and action potential (-58mV) of a leech neuron. Why leeches? They can't afford lawyers. Actually, the nervous system of the leech is simplified and easier to understand. This will be accomlished by inserting a microelectrode into a single neuron which will enable me to measure electrical changes in the cell. The cell will be stimulated by different items and the response displayed on the oscilloscope. Different neurons will respond differently to the same stimulus. </div><div></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Here, the oscilloscope demonstrates the cell's response to the microelectrode. The response was the same for the feather, probe and forceps.</span> </div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj06obotgy6Yfl-iKcNIMreLBgVoyh4nBiLv-NLasHQ3rrgykX8jsCdv_eslO2RRnHIpC4zOszT19lZuJ05cgGKRK_c4QNbcsBoTnv53ka48bCPwkiKU40rR1-WmyxZXKjP9pmvVEkWiuNN/s1600-h/Neuro+lab.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184716363049762514" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj06obotgy6Yfl-iKcNIMreLBgVoyh4nBiLv-NLasHQ3rrgykX8jsCdv_eslO2RRnHIpC4zOszT19lZuJ05cgGKRK_c4QNbcsBoTnv53ka48bCPwkiKU40rR1-WmyxZXKjP9pmvVEkWiuNN/s400/Neuro+lab.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Below is the image obtained after injecting Lucifer Yellow and illuminating the results with ultraviolet light.</span></div><div></div><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6uGsuJyrMy61PXAELIXVOqHMNztZyBRFDxAdnj5cSwW-sav2SqWDq4pP09FebNQs-eONolt8xEZEtN7DAwburzpVHoxZgCbq3l4tcHRP7oNCiHVbHPsTSnzz1fJKEyjfF-EqLFoCqgVxL/s1600-h/neuro+lab+2.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184716371639697122" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6uGsuJyrMy61PXAELIXVOqHMNztZyBRFDxAdnj5cSwW-sav2SqWDq4pP09FebNQs-eONolt8xEZEtN7DAwburzpVHoxZgCbq3l4tcHRP7oNCiHVbHPsTSnzz1fJKEyjfF-EqLFoCqgVxL/s400/neuro+lab+2.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Based on these results, this is a "R" neuron.</span></div><br /><div></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjat7jZPj-rFDB3McUE_28S8QKsFreZzELcTSHG6KpCwN3ttc4qxDu2mPXlujkbsx9oinryTCnVLtl6alEqvlIfk_88ZtV7Nrf-kYl-UlM8QRASoV4B-UtEecjLgZVYofj9555ItOHHXcfi/s1600-h/Cell+atlas.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184717582820474610" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjat7jZPj-rFDB3McUE_28S8QKsFreZzELcTSHG6KpCwN3ttc4qxDu2mPXlujkbsx9oinryTCnVLtl6alEqvlIfk_88ZtV7Nrf-kYl-UlM8QRASoV4B-UtEecjLgZVYofj9555ItOHHXcfi/s400/Cell+atlas.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div></div>Below is an image of an "N" cell. It's only response was to the pressure of the forceps.<br /><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3DCGL3o4omenF19Jz6JJ1ShEHCWZb2GC07JaN8tiNe1zr4UWfJqCh2VGdomCms9dzMkHeOGQraqdg55c6Wb_1eJxzwz-ACmY82qboGdvai_DgOAlVeRLOtIXXchdfIYptH2W7GWZi7U31/s1600-h/N+cell.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5184718347324653314" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3DCGL3o4omenF19Jz6JJ1ShEHCWZb2GC07JaN8tiNe1zr4UWfJqCh2VGdomCms9dzMkHeOGQraqdg55c6Wb_1eJxzwz-ACmY82qboGdvai_DgOAlVeRLOtIXXchdfIYptH2W7GWZi7U31/s400/N+cell.gif" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div></div><br /><div>This demonstrates that there are different types of neurons. A sensory neuron gathers information and sends it to the CNS. A motor neuron carries a response which in turn triggers glands or muscles.</div><br /><div></div><br /><div>Based on this experiment, I would say that leeches do experience pain. Pain is the volley of signals which conveys intensity. The more signalling, the more intense the sensation.</div><br /><div></div><br /><div>I enjoyed understanding the physiology and observing the responses to different stimuli. I also enjoyed not having to actually touch a leech.</div><br /><div></div><br /><div>I enjoyed doing this lab. It's very informative and explains each step very well.</div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-4664004379908908482008-03-23T21:46:00.000-07:002008-03-23T22:02:40.572-07:00Self Evaluation<span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#ff6600;">1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?</span><br />I finished it all.<br />Enjoyed learning most of it.<br />I feel the assignments are pretty thorough.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?</span><br />I'm not sure if the exercise lab is as detailed as you wanted. </span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?</span><br />I'm hoping for an A. I worked pretty hard on it.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">4. How could I perform better in the next unit?</span><br />I'm still struggling with time management. It is now Easter night and I'm just completing this unit after spending several hours on it during spring break.<br /><br />REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?</span><br />I enjoyed writing the ethical essay. This has been a very interesting aspect of the course. Makes me think more about issues we live with.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?</span><br />I do not enjoy the compendiums. It seems as though I would be done and discover there's 3 or 4 more pages to cover. Many of the links to the text book's website are not working.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?</span><br />Honestly, haven't had any contact with anyone for this unit.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?</span><br />Can't think of anything.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">What about this unit surprised you the most?</span> <span style="color:#ff6600;">(This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)</span><br />Chapter 8 was not the brief experience I expected.</span><br /></span>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-7830002277858657172008-03-22T20:25:00.000-07:002008-03-28T10:18:16.511-07:00Unit Two Lab Project: Exercise Physiology<div><div><div>
<br /><div>HOW DO I THINK MY METABOLIC RATES WILL COMPARE TO BASELINE AFTER:
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<br /><strong>Coffee</strong> - Why coffee? I've had a lot of patients blame their coffee for elevated blood pressures. I wanted to know if this was a valid accusation. Understanding that caffeine is a stimulant, I believe that my heart rate will increase and my systolic blood pressure will rise only slightly because caffeine is not a vasoconstrictor. I don't believe that the diastolic pressure will change. I don't think my respirations will change measurably due to the fact that I will remain sedentary while drinking the coffee. I do this for the safety and well-being of myself and those around me. Changes will continue to increase porportionately with more caffeine ingestion. I may drink 3 cups of coffee in the name of scientific research. . .
<br /></div><div><strong>Scary Movie</strong> - not the funny one. Given that I don't care for scary movies, I propose that my pulse rate will increase alarmingly, my blood pressure and respirations will also rise. All symptoms associated with the "fight or flight response" will exhibit themselves; except the soiling one's pants. "When our fight or flight response is activated, sequences of nerve cell firing occur and chemicals like adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol are released into our bloodstream. These patterns of nerve cell firing and chemical release cause our body to undergo a series of very dramatic changes. <span style="color:#cc0000;">Our respiratory rate increases. Blood is shunted away from our digestive tract and directed into our muscles and limbs, which require extra energy and fuel for running and fighting. Our pupils dilate. Our awareness intensifies. Our sight sharpens. Our impulses quicken. Our perception of pain diminishes. Our immune system mobilizes with increased activation. We become prepared—physically and psychologically—for fight or flight. We scan and search our environment, "looking for the enemy</span>."Mind/Body Education Center <a style="BORDER-LEFT-COLOR: #ffffff; BORDER-BOTTOM-COLOR: #ffffff; BORDER-TOP-STYLE: solid; BORDER-TOP-COLOR: #ffffff; BORDER-RIGHT-STYLE: solid; BORDER-LEFT-STYLE: solid; BORDER-RIGHT-COLOR: #ffffff; BORDER-BOTTOM-STYLE: solid">©</a> Neil F. Neimark, M.D. at <a href="http://www.thebodysoulconnection.com/">http://www.thebodysoulconnection.com/</a>
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<br /></div><div><strong>Walking the Dog</strong> - The most strenous lab in a physical sense. Since I'm out of shape - it's been at least a year since I've walked the dog - I imagine my pulse will probably increase by 50% due to the incredible demand placed on it by muscle cells rudely awakened and imposed upon to actually perform. The donuts circulating in my blood as glucose will be converted to ATP. However, since I won't be walking for very long, the remaining glucose will be stored as glycogen in my liver and muscles. Respirations will triple (exaggeration, most likely also increase by 50%) to suppport the increased demand for oxygen needed to support glycolysis. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressures will increase substantially. I shall break out in a sweat and may have to call someone for a ride home. This is a cruel and unusual assignment.
<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Chart of hypothesis
<br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo8ewrVL9B1Y7lLgvXbNb2zKMHrZzCsQdg8h1YC3D9P-gFxyRT5lsdsF2COnkkHOjRmdZxk3P1ySPtYhqCgKhGnNpdmNYqu4ZCA4kFz4mdYND8cUqLgZuMLp9a1voN2FfY57683herh82F/s1600-h/metabolic+prediction.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180804103109639554" style="WIDTH: 448px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 138px" height="196" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo8ewrVL9B1Y7lLgvXbNb2zKMHrZzCsQdg8h1YC3D9P-gFxyRT5lsdsF2COnkkHOjRmdZxk3P1ySPtYhqCgKhGnNpdmNYqu4ZCA4kFz4mdYND8cUqLgZuMLp9a1voN2FfY57683herh82F/s400/metabolic+prediction.gif" width="506" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div>
<br /><div><strong>Baseline</strong> </div>
<br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">I believe I was there way longer than 10 mintes . . .</span> </div>
<br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGSjZxnpzoqNurHN_xDChJrsBj7QUmFaC0aexwEcBpMYsovTBOlHX8Iy4QCoTEymf9Oy1IgOosaW4WIFmPI4GVXfvrhI3Fa1IzZfaM3Z1i1zfAlvMmFyzQNXvOakVagNpIEqUBtoMpXUTl/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+004.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180781322603101506" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGSjZxnpzoqNurHN_xDChJrsBj7QUmFaC0aexwEcBpMYsovTBOlHX8Iy4QCoTEymf9Oy1IgOosaW4WIFmPI4GVXfvrhI3Fa1IzZfaM3Z1i1zfAlvMmFyzQNXvOakVagNpIEqUBtoMpXUTl/s400/Exercise+Lab+004.jpg" border="0" /></a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsq4pJR_12SXvibQAHxK9YHhiS1X2esxJN0lMi6lquCWfrvBltyqBsyVjwzObXfTqhhZdlRE1QvhhyphenhyphenXuuGCSNOcS4wDpZYNsMzO2XJynSSkwEEipcNmkl_ICPpea9XfUGA8EbTUwXIuvBM/s1600-h/Baseline+all.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182835906108489250" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsq4pJR_12SXvibQAHxK9YHhiS1X2esxJN0lMi6lquCWfrvBltyqBsyVjwzObXfTqhhZdlRE1QvhhyphenhyphenXuuGCSNOcS4wDpZYNsMzO2XJynSSkwEEipcNmkl_ICPpea9XfUGA8EbTUwXIuvBM/s400/Baseline+all.gif" border="0" /></a></div><div></div>
<br /><div><strong>Coffee</strong> </div>
<br /><div></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Oh, yeah, we have "Starbucks" at our house . . .</span></div>
<br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6FBFro7kUlJmOQJtKVKzZUgH45ZNNE0Z7GIR-CLZDt9U3ZvqkhaHeEMJaLTCMcVoSHRv-PA-CcBMsOQFBlqxO201_16v0XUL6lQCQMoPL_X30iHGl5_8Fl8f3rl8eKER5Veoa-jI_8pI3/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+002.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180787421456661874" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6FBFro7kUlJmOQJtKVKzZUgH45ZNNE0Z7GIR-CLZDt9U3ZvqkhaHeEMJaLTCMcVoSHRv-PA-CcBMsOQFBlqxO201_16v0XUL6lQCQMoPL_X30iHGl5_8Fl8f3rl8eKER5Veoa-jI_8pI3/s400/Exercise+Lab+002.jpg" border="0" /></a> </div>
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<br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMd4-TT6JTxA5HL51_bc008EVztE28Huobxq86hAWwsSwfeS3C_tMDzd69HejjbqyYOIu6AtNO1P8HKqV3NwYPytJQuHlVEEOftHA8CeXVNn3iCYeToV4uLNaPCAFWcVd0GZB9pX84OeaM/s1600-h/coffee+all.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182835910403456562" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMd4-TT6JTxA5HL51_bc008EVztE28Huobxq86hAWwsSwfeS3C_tMDzd69HejjbqyYOIu6AtNO1P8HKqV3NwYPytJQuHlVEEOftHA8CeXVNn3iCYeToV4uLNaPCAFWcVd0GZB9pX84OeaM/s400/coffee+all.gif" border="0" /></a></div>
<br /><div>
<br />Actual Means vs Predicted
<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEzXmoTmlVRcQ-hOxtdOyd-yDFRIlhsp-2ULThg8_knuqMWRCU1I05xwxBBUbUAbMuWPL-sXCvym455I2IIwCYZPWutvEVvhTHNVw11WJMcbfVPTpqR_r5dlX3IzqFBHxRb5kErNRELSFb/s1600-h/Coffee+Act-Pred.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182837082929528418" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEzXmoTmlVRcQ-hOxtdOyd-yDFRIlhsp-2ULThg8_knuqMWRCU1I05xwxBBUbUAbMuWPL-sXCvym455I2IIwCYZPWutvEVvhTHNVw11WJMcbfVPTpqR_r5dlX3IzqFBHxRb5kErNRELSFb/s400/Coffee+Act-Pred.gif" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div>
<br />
<br /><div>I thought my pulse would increase more and the BP would increase less than it actually did. Perhaps there is some validity in the patient's blaming the coffee on their elevated BPs. Caffeine is "a central nervous system stimulant, diuretic, striated muscle stimulant, and acts on the cardiovascular system."<span style="color:#3333ff;"><</span><span style="color:#3333ff;">a href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Caffiene">caffeine</a></span></div><div></div>
<br /><div><strong>Scary Movie</strong> </div>
<br /><div></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Stressed out . . . scary movies must be bad for your health!</span>
<br /></div>
<br />
<br /><div><strong><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHeGc1_CoyzBI06E2H_il6TIyR5VuMx9NYfutsRxrBR53EnPjknJX7aQ0mVAaF5szvwyusXKONy-_nE4iNgWGeLWpcdUiIzoqtnbj6j5pA3LmBRaIOYCIZ4GGPP9nXCjPHAhHG3X9ljSo1/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+005.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180781326898068818" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHeGc1_CoyzBI06E2H_il6TIyR5VuMx9NYfutsRxrBR53EnPjknJX7aQ0mVAaF5szvwyusXKONy-_nE4iNgWGeLWpcdUiIzoqtnbj6j5pA3LmBRaIOYCIZ4GGPP9nXCjPHAhHG3X9ljSo1/s400/Exercise+Lab+005.jpg" border="0" /></a></strong>
<br /></div>
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<br /><div></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFb5TKMecBBVCfurslA2fKSxBDEhA1MEcVxeR6QURfeEm3HoznSa-T3YzfGZ3Rcqo1_CVNyh2KykdGo_HjVEVRRfy3sec5PpBAAjY_fLNZauTR9d_yXrDMc4bue9wXjg8AfeZKJjPJgihW/s1600-h/scary+all.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182835910403456578" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFb5TKMecBBVCfurslA2fKSxBDEhA1MEcVxeR6QURfeEm3HoznSa-T3YzfGZ3Rcqo1_CVNyh2KykdGo_HjVEVRRfy3sec5PpBAAjY_fLNZauTR9d_yXrDMc4bue9wXjg8AfeZKJjPJgihW/s400/scary+all.gif" border="0" /></a>
<br />
<br />Actual means vs Predicted
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<br />
<br /><div></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC_QUd667_Js0DFAL5LrConuZNx-ZqoHQIFNB5_UGjosrvQYGN7MNDNuTBlEWuLZb1CPiejzybE2QcY_UWJgF5ti8945BiG5iXY-L_2ddHYVoeGaIN6W1pMZuCd9QxLozDWsXrlxfuWOsh/s1600-h/Scary+pred-act.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182837091519463026" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC_QUd667_Js0DFAL5LrConuZNx-ZqoHQIFNB5_UGjosrvQYGN7MNDNuTBlEWuLZb1CPiejzybE2QcY_UWJgF5ti8945BiG5iXY-L_2ddHYVoeGaIN6W1pMZuCd9QxLozDWsXrlxfuWOsh/s400/Scary+pred-act.gif" border="0" /></a>
<br />
<br /><div>Obviously, the movies were scarier than I had feared. I think I need counseling.
<br /></div><div></div>
<br /><div><strong>Walking the Dog</strong>
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<br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">This may be the last picture taken of me alive . . .</span>
<br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaxOZiYOMqSBgOGxquOGHhyphenhyphen4MoweprId168_vOewMCFgM9rK_Mailzac2RXnDJIaWgnG18kCcCaoFkT4lyUD1xlR7Y7N75BGTp4fC9AQqbme8eQ9bWlEPgWhH8vSomlHzfHMfHj870Mxsb/s1600-h/Exercise+Lab+007.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180781331193036130" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaxOZiYOMqSBgOGxquOGHhyphenhyphen4MoweprId168_vOewMCFgM9rK_Mailzac2RXnDJIaWgnG18kCcCaoFkT4lyUD1xlR7Y7N75BGTp4fC9AQqbme8eQ9bWlEPgWhH8vSomlHzfHMfHj870Mxsb/s400/Exercise+Lab+007.jpg" border="0" /></a>
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<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5tmdTuOsc0LsfbD8gHstdQpP2Ga9XVl5IMRGVVHf-CnPGC9mp1UU2igoJ8pZyl_AmGO4iNEcehVlIcIMd0aZZrJ39cDJFqTsIjhQ_QhnRDrpOEPdSPEQ0MP3FMuy7iSONRHwT2AunxqSx/s1600-h/walking+all.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182835914698423890" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5tmdTuOsc0LsfbD8gHstdQpP2Ga9XVl5IMRGVVHf-CnPGC9mp1UU2igoJ8pZyl_AmGO4iNEcehVlIcIMd0aZZrJ39cDJFqTsIjhQ_QhnRDrpOEPdSPEQ0MP3FMuy7iSONRHwT2AunxqSx/s400/walking+all.gif" border="0" /></a></div>
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<br /><div></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjc6mmCFAsOZmEac4navuQzkhyCTcNYFgLzK-HKXo57SBppU9jj0OL_V3J8GRcN5uh-r0ZC_w5Ea6suFQzmVb2s5e10evCoTKTqIfnmp3sEeHFQDCZEkS2u_39Rtljz6b4khgG3SRyceqzW/s1600-h/walking+pre-act.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5182840441593953954" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjc6mmCFAsOZmEac4navuQzkhyCTcNYFgLzK-HKXo57SBppU9jj0OL_V3J8GRcN5uh-r0ZC_w5Ea6suFQzmVb2s5e10evCoTKTqIfnmp3sEeHFQDCZEkS2u_39Rtljz6b4khgG3SRyceqzW/s400/walking+pre-act.gif" border="0" /></a>
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<br /><div></div><div>I believe that these results are slightly skewed because the first measurements were much lower than all the subsequent ones.</div>
<br /><div>below is a table of results (mean) with the lowest numbers removed.</div><div></div>
<br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxdBOOOP_RNjn1p_LKF2ZbI8Ly1yIOfBfB7JadcSVm2GKvc-TpTVzd5JOCbUoxcwq6TktMg85ObrMOrdLH9_gh1MfbZ4s7kEf-mMMq0yHdjTxTCPwi6eJI2zxp4chz-H87Elf4x5xNH_cS/s1600-h/walking+low+omitted.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5181142306014395890" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxdBOOOP_RNjn1p_LKF2ZbI8Ly1yIOfBfB7JadcSVm2GKvc-TpTVzd5JOCbUoxcwq6TktMg85ObrMOrdLH9_gh1MfbZ4s7kEf-mMMq0yHdjTxTCPwi6eJI2zxp4chz-H87Elf4x5xNH_cS/s400/walking+low+omitted.gif" border="0" /></a>% </div><div>
<br />I was surprised when taking my blood pressure during the "walking the dog" lab. It did not immediately rise, then 10-15 minutes into the walk was up to 128/82. The BP then lowered to 110/80 and the pulse remained slightly rapid at 92-104. Respirations were a constant at 20 per minute after the first measurements. I think the cells signalled for more oxygen (in my case, panic button)and the body responded irratically and then stabilized when all demands were met and could be maintained at the lower BP. I did not think that the diastolic would rise that much; however it is pretty low to begin with. Walking the dog was the most uncomfortable during the adjustment of the BP and I felt as though I could walk a few more miles after it lowered and homeostasis was met during exertion.
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<br /><div>I believe that given that response, it would be more accurate to analyze a table with all the measurements on X and time spent walking on Y instead of averaging all the values into one set of figures.
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<br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#ff6600;">I wanted to see how the walking the dog would look on a line</span></div></span><span style="color:#ff6600;"><div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">with all the data posted from one event.
<br /></span></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMcG2MJ4iynpKPmIFT5gUf1E71k9q2XmWRGt4YYtZJIBTTgtMxBERJmou7vZWXOFW86OZAFn5VRu48sJQA_wgm-VeFimkyVf0oVnF6lcIJqjZNfJorHL1ZqB9FMSlCABVJlpnrbRATI5_w/s1600-h/walking+the+dog+new.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5181150784279838210" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMcG2MJ4iynpKPmIFT5gUf1E71k9q2XmWRGt4YYtZJIBTTgtMxBERJmou7vZWXOFW86OZAFn5VRu48sJQA_wgm-VeFimkyVf0oVnF6lcIJqjZNfJorHL1ZqB9FMSlCABVJlpnrbRATI5_w/s400/walking+the+dog+new.gif" border="0" /></a></div></span></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;"></span></div>
<br /><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Here's the 4 (in one) that you asked for:</span></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Mean results of all 4 activities.
<br /></span></div><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD7ex126-fRLfeT9Bd3NSizQBJLgoVUsPpSq2wWTxw7hGY50cht4SKfrJ16xElpXGpMYEJZf98HOY37uPM5x2olLAHs7LjBshj2Wckgk8ElSw1MAEIxxOPiT73Lf-68hGBtpmBCDSb2cV7/s1600-h/Exercise+bar.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5181115402339253682" style="WIDTH: 456px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 563px" height="491" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD7ex126-fRLfeT9Bd3NSizQBJLgoVUsPpSq2wWTxw7hGY50cht4SKfrJ16xElpXGpMYEJZf98HOY37uPM5x2olLAHs7LjBshj2Wckgk8ElSw1MAEIxxOPiT73Lf-68hGBtpmBCDSb2cV7/s400/Exercise+bar.gif" width="432" border="0" /></a>
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<br /><div><strong>Conclusion:</strong> Our metabolism is obviously affected by rest and physical stimulation. Chemical and psychological influences have also been demonstrated by this lab to have their influences as well. Most of my hypothesis were low and I believe most people would underestimate the affects that these stressors have in our lives. </div>
<br /><div></div><div>The changes were proportionate to the types of stimulants as indicated on the chart. Coffee mildly increased the metabolic rate with caffeine. Scary movies were more stimulating than coffee, but don't think I'll be using that to wake up in the morning. Of course, walking posed the greatest demand evidenced by the systems response.
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<br />Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-90405401997936331222008-03-22T12:30:00.000-07:002008-03-22T12:49:10.627-07:00Food Nutrition Lab<p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSjn6a2KQ4aqbHFvZmEaLfx4elk4Nnn9E-asnv2hyphenhyphenxeJfmYzrrGcanH-_blfazPAh_pPas5-HFWGitJieK9pzUcbDjzy3jV4w-_3nLjQw5EtbEKRWdXUd9cmD0jSI1rTtta-5c3HMveT4s/s1600-h/nutrition+lab+%232.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180651004705406226" style="WIDTH: 406px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 608px" height="606" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSjn6a2KQ4aqbHFvZmEaLfx4elk4Nnn9E-asnv2hyphenhyphenxeJfmYzrrGcanH-_blfazPAh_pPas5-HFWGitJieK9pzUcbDjzy3jV4w-_3nLjQw5EtbEKRWdXUd9cmD0jSI1rTtta-5c3HMveT4s/s400/nutrition+lab+%232.gif" width="538" border="0" /></a></p><br /><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaToLsWQf-dsJaJPeuVvKTMsWMOoFs4zVH3TP1SvjZjhnZ2Y5edX4M_zhP8VIDI3QTAG1J2Qk9MczXxgQ5E0ak5ePOaBcf-xTfDx-6VdiSipIOTf24dI9r8qGRUQh5ItnuhWBXI9u_qcgm/s1600-h/nutrition+lab.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180651000410438914" style="WIDTH: 389px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 728px" height="624" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaToLsWQf-dsJaJPeuVvKTMsWMOoFs4zVH3TP1SvjZjhnZ2Y5edX4M_zhP8VIDI3QTAG1J2Qk9MczXxgQ5E0ak5ePOaBcf-xTfDx-6VdiSipIOTf24dI9r8qGRUQh5ItnuhWBXI9u_qcgm/s400/nutrition+lab.gif" width="523" border="0" /></a></p><p><a href="http://www.my-calorie-counter.com/">www.my-calorie-counter.com</a></p><p><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;">I was not able to get the assigned nutrition calculator to work. I had this one in my favorites and so decided to go with it. </span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;"></span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;">Do I think this is a healthy diet? Concerning caloric intake, I would say yes. </span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;"></span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;">It is deficient in fruits and vegetables and a little high in fats. Perhaps the Starbucks ice cream put me over - but well worth it. This is not a daily indulgence, it is a rare treat. </span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;"></span><br /><span style="font-family:georgia;">This type of nutritional tracking, although tedious, is helpful. I absolutely recommend that everyone should write down and analyse what they eat so they're aware of how these choices affect their bodies and general health.</span><br /></p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaToLsWQf-dsJaJPeuVvKTMsWMOoFs4zVH3TP1SvjZjhnZ2Y5edX4M_zhP8VIDI3QTAG1J2Qk9MczXxgQ5E0ak5ePOaBcf-xTfDx-6VdiSipIOTf24dI9r8qGRUQh5ItnuhWBXI9u_qcgm/s1600-h/nutrition+lab.gif"></a></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaToLsWQf-dsJaJPeuVvKTMsWMOoFs4zVH3TP1SvjZjhnZ2Y5edX4M_zhP8VIDI3QTAG1J2Qk9MczXxgQ5E0ak5ePOaBcf-xTfDx-6VdiSipIOTf24dI9r8qGRUQh5ItnuhWBXI9u_qcgm/s1600-h/nutrition+lab.gif"></a></p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-65345445511310726022008-03-22T10:45:00.000-07:002008-03-22T10:52:00.763-07:00<div><br /><br /><div><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">What is Food?</span></strong> </div><br /><div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJHxEe_zWlYXYHq15Km2aM5UFoRFoZs2wF4NVBrBab-grTn9H7cCZow_rUM6WaML-WqcRPbZ3MUz3IIPMuSGJSbcSY6eMMvjWcgTt9gdbIn-Ii3J13L777aN_UwK1eiJYDh30kWN6JWFUg/s1600-h/fake+food.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180624272828955874" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJHxEe_zWlYXYHq15Km2aM5UFoRFoZs2wF4NVBrBab-grTn9H7cCZow_rUM6WaML-WqcRPbZ3MUz3IIPMuSGJSbcSY6eMMvjWcgTt9gdbIn-Ii3J13L777aN_UwK1eiJYDh30kWN6JWFUg/s400/fake+food.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><br /><div><a href="http://calorielab.com/news/wp-images/post-images/plastic-fast-food-toys.jpg">http://calorielab.com/news/wp-images/post-images/plastic-fast-food-toys.jpg</a></div><br /><div><br />Odd that we should be asking ourselves, “What is food?” Would I be too bold to venture a guess that nearly all of the human population would not hesitate to respond with, “Whatever you eat.” Yet, once again, the progress of science has blurred the lines. Black and white is now a gray blur.<br />What is food? Are we eating food? In an attempt to discover the impact of certain nutrients on the health and well-being of people, we have discovered that macronutrients (fats, carbohydrates and proteins) in varying proportions have varying effects.<br />I’m not sure where you can say it all began, but I’m certain that it would be accurate to say that refined flour and white sugar has impacted the health of the human population more than any other alteration of our food resources. “By the time the wheat has been milled and processed, it has been stripped of over 23 natural vitamins, minerals and precious fiber. In their place, processors add back five synthetic vitamins, so they may label their products “enriched,” which misleads many of us into thinking we are purchasing something healthy. The refined flour is then put through a “bleaching” process––adding further chemicals to the flour” (¶1). This was at the bottom of the old food pyramid and a staple of the American diet.<br />Well, we were getting fat and dying from heart disease and the researchers determined that we need to cut back on fats. Replacing them with more carbohydrates made sense. Now we have low fat-high carb diets. Isn’t that how we fatten livestock? Well, America got fat. Diabetes and heart disease was on the rise. “The industrial food supply was promptly reformulated to reflect the official advice, giving us low-fat pork, low-fat Snackwell’s and all the low-fat pasta and high-fructose (yet low-fat!) corn syrup we could consume. Which turned out to be quite a lot. Oddly, America got really fat on its new low-fat diet — indeed, many date the current <a title="Recent and archival health news about obesity." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/obesity/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">obesity</a> and diabetes epidemic to the late 1970s, when Americans began binging on carbohydrates, ostensibly as a way to avoid the evils of fat” (¶20) .<br />Due to the ability of industry to quickly adapt its products to the latest recommendation/craze, we are immediately inundated with products galore touting the latest improved nutritional content. We are left scratching our heads in the aftermath and scrambling to understand why our most recent manipulation went awry.<br />Consider now the process of irradiation. This is our current means of slowing decay of what remained to be real food. Meat, fruits and vegetables are subjected to different forms of radiation. These are “low dose” beams that kill pathogens and help to extend their shelf life. The FDA has embraced this technology. It remains to be seen whether or not the motivation was social or political. A recent study concludes, “Therefore, consumption of irradiated food for a long time can cause significant accumulation of the toxic 2-ACB in the adipose tissues of consumers... Consumption of an improper diet together with food that contains 2-ACB which acts as a tumor promoter can increase the risk for the development of colon cancer. Under this scenario, individuals who would normally outlive the risk for colon cancer might develop the cancer from the promoting effect of 2-ACB” (7).<br />My opinion? We need to return to real food; the way it was created. The problem is I’m not sure we can recognize it unless labeling of food items includes the irradiation process and any other alterations we may invent. Then, there’s the issue of educating the people. In the face of the media supporting these new developments, it also may be challenging to motivate people to support locally, organically grown agricultures. It’s so much easier to do all your shopping in one market and we are pressed for time. Speaking of which one may have less of it after eating “food”.<br />In conclusion:<br />“To be worthy of the name, Homo Sapiens should rid himself<br />of speed before it reduces him to a species in danger<br />of extinction.A firm defense of quiet material pleasure is the only way to<br />oppose the universal folly of Fast Life. May suitable doses of guaranteed sensual pleasure and<br />slow, long-lasting enjoyment preserve us from the contagion of the multitude who mistake frenzy for efficiency” (6).<br /></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCKvWpMErea8lmlD7hD248Dutj6jJipewH6HfA_LQ60FCBQmP2i_rlFQhW-HheXxXdOgFl6rjRJTwo0-KEROZ6FO3OvU1xBvxFRqU9T6G23QHj08Y04pm0WzbK3ak_rQXUqP40HFCuCqza/s1600-h/real+food.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5180625007268363506" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCKvWpMErea8lmlD7hD248Dutj6jJipewH6HfA_LQ60FCBQmP2i_rlFQhW-HheXxXdOgFl6rjRJTwo0-KEROZ6FO3OvU1xBvxFRqU9T6G23QHj08Y04pm0WzbK3ak_rQXUqP40HFCuCqza/s400/real+food.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div> <a href="http://www.rfrk.com/images/rfrk_temphome.jpg">http://www.rfrk.com/images/rfrk_temphome.jpg</a></div><div><br />Works Cited<br /><br />Bobak, Dr. Susan “Why No White, Refined Flour Products?”. The Messenger. November 2001. <http:><br /><br />Polan, Michael.“Unhappy Meals” The New York Times. Published: January 28, 2007. ¶20. <<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ei=5088&en=7c85a1c254546157&ex=1327640400&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss&pagewanted=all">http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ei=5088&en=7c85a1c254546157&ex=1327640400&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss&pagewanted=all</a>><br /><br />What’s in the Beef?. Scientists Question the Safety of Irradiated Ground Beef. Pg 7. By Public Citizen & The Center for Food Safety. Washington, DC. November 2003. <<a href="http://www.citizen.org/documents/beeftesting.pdf">http://www.citizen.org/documents/beeftesting.pdf</a>><br /><br />Ed. Renato Sardo. “The Slow Food Companion” 2005. Slow Food<br /><<a href="http://www.slowfoodusa.org/COMPANION_ENG.PDF">http://www.slowfoodusa.org/COMPANION_ENG.PDF</a>></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-14808426449503030732008-03-20T13:17:00.000-07:002008-03-20T21:26:09.940-07:00Compendium Chapter 8<div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Compendium Topic II: Nutrition<br /></span></strong><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">8.1 Overview of Digestion</span></strong><br /></div><br /><div><br /><br /></div><br /><p align="left">Five basic steps of digestion:<br />1. Ingestion – taking in food<br />2. Digestion – mechanical or chemical breakdown food prior to reaching the small intestine<br />3. Movement – the transfer of food along the GI tract<br />4. Absorption – nutrients crossing the wall of the GI tract for delivery to the body<br />5. Elimination – discarding unused matter<br /><br />There are 4 layers of the digestive tract:<br />1. Mucosa – inner layer either produces protective mucus or receives digestive enzymes. Diverticulosis are pockets formed in the mucosa that push through the other layers. These can become infected or inflamed.<br />2. Submocosa – connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves. Lymphatic nodules called Peyer’s patches providing immune surveillance and response. </p><br /><div align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Gastrointestinal Tract<br /></span><br /></div><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMggghTOXeYPgmiyCYLtf0fNosY23ijtAwxSafsBwsh5HOtZLICPBF9jcr3JMmWVRZ7a-NvE7zUJ3HZVuYlHU01QotEP5biDtshvx-YLfN6r_1B3kImM2WTdtjYmDnZ00zqgTZIrbwKKSL/s1600-h/gi+tract.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179926675650804562" style="CURSOR: hand" height="487" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMggghTOXeYPgmiyCYLtf0fNosY23ijtAwxSafsBwsh5HOtZLICPBF9jcr3JMmWVRZ7a-NvE7zUJ3HZVuYlHU01QotEP5biDtshvx-YLfN6r_1B3kImM2WTdtjYmDnZ00zqgTZIrbwKKSL/s400/gi+tract.bmp" width="417" border="0" /></a></p><br /><div align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_system" target="_top">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_system</a> </div><br /><div><br />3. Muscularis – smooth muscle in circular and longitudinal directions that provides movement of particles in the digestive tract.<br />4. Serosa – peritoneal lining which secretes serous fluid.<br />5. Appendix – small dead-end appendage at proximal large intestine. Just recently the following was published regarding this small, misunderstood part. “The appendix "acts as a good safe house for bacteria," said Duke surgery professor Bill Parker, a study co-author. Its location _ just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine in a sort of gut cul-de-sac -- helps support the theory, he said.” <span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.medicinenet.com/appendicitis/article.htm">http://www.medicinenet.com/appendicitis/article.htm</a></span><span style="font-size:78%;"> </span></div><br /><div><br /><br /></div><br /><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM9pEwRuWDBIeVZBYg8oguBg8Sg-9PA6V1lmHvWw10p9XlxaLZmLyGyjwcKwG2RB6aShbyrkxRpyz1M3B7lKK9kqGxU22SBzJwi_ZW-zwwQc8JQQeUCbn95JD1qLIJQyLRW0t6IUlc4buu/s1600-h/appendix.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179926679945771874" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM9pEwRuWDBIeVZBYg8oguBg8Sg-9PA6V1lmHvWw10p9XlxaLZmLyGyjwcKwG2RB6aShbyrkxRpyz1M3B7lKK9kqGxU22SBzJwi_ZW-zwwQc8JQQeUCbn95JD1qLIJQyLRW0t6IUlc4buu/s400/appendix.bmp" border="0" /></a></p><br /><div><br /><br /></div><br /><p align="left"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/10/05/appendix.purpose.ap/index.html">http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/10/05/appendix.purpose.ap/index.html</a><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>8.2 First Part of the Digestive Tract</strong></span> </p><br /><div align="center"><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">The Mouth</span><br /></div><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSn7DZLMfaJOGEcHSXj093xgMzkUxE9JSEqL-nvgK4sKGDxCcDzGuGKNAUG14KEXSki57vWZmBevnmhXG6aCdX-MzXxKmyOlolxfoWAK-cIzhKwSbhDuLZTAGdePw3bAd8K2LUxyBN9bBd/s1600-h/Mouth.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179926684240739186" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSn7DZLMfaJOGEcHSXj093xgMzkUxE9JSEqL-nvgK4sKGDxCcDzGuGKNAUG14KEXSki57vWZmBevnmhXG6aCdX-MzXxKmyOlolxfoWAK-cIzhKwSbhDuLZTAGdePw3bAd8K2LUxyBN9bBd/s400/Mouth.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><br /><div><br /><br /></div><br /><p align="left"><br /><a href="http://www.medicalook.com/systems_images/Mouth.jpg">http://www.medicalook.com/systems_images/Mouth.jpg</a><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Mine’s a size 7 ½; I know because my foot’s been there quite a number of times. </span></p><span style="color:#ff6600;"><br /><p align="left"><br /></span>The teeth provide the means by which mechanical breakdown of food occurs. Saliva composed of mucus, water, bicarbonate, and salivary amylase begin the breakdown of starches. The tongue gathers together the amount of food in your mouth you will swallow.<br />The pharynx is located immediately behind the tongue. Nasal and oral passages meet in that cavity. The soft palate will close off the nasal passage to guide food down the esophagus and the epiglottis will cover the airway (trachea) so food does not travel to your lungs.<br />If all goes well, the rhythmic movement of the esophagus (peristalsis) will push the food to the stomach. There is a sphincter separating the stomach and the esophagus which will open to allow food into the stomach and narrow to prevent acid reflux up the esophagus. If acid does find its way up the esophagus, heartburn occurs.<br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">8.3 The Stomach and Small Intestine</span></strong><br /><br />The stomach is located on the left side just beneath the diaphragm. It has an additional layer of muscle that is oblique to the other two. This allows it to stretch and break down food as it mixes with gastric juices. Deep folds (rugae) in the mucosa of the stomach will flatten as the stomach fills. Gastric glands produce pepsin (digests protein), hydrochloric acid (HCl)(breaks down connective tissue in meats), and mucus. This reduces food to a thick, foamy liquid called “chyme” which is released in small amounts into the small intestine.<br />The duodenum is the next portion of the GI tract. It is the first 25cm following the pyloric sphincter. Enzymes from the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder are introduced here. Bile will breakdown (emulsify) fats to disperse in water. Lipase from the pancreas will hydrolyze the fat to glycerol and fatty acids. Amylase, also from the pancreas, will begin the digestion of carbohydrates and trypsin contributes to reducing proteins to amino acids. The remaining section of the small intestine will absorb the molecules that resulted from the breakdown of foods. These are basically amino acids, fatty acids, sugars, and glycerol.<br />The small intestine is lined with small fingerlike columns called villi. This greatly increases the surface area of the intestine permitting easier absorption of nutrients. </p><br /><p align="left"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Cross section of a Villi<br /></span><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWAYbOg2YD3xhyDgJjiitD4MJV95Lyct8SNmaqrMZH_Tb4oGuWlpHTrjgtC7sA95Rsx6Ui4vfka8AWc1WN2ODNUX2Ra-oL0AWhuQg-31kYsCYOzzcoOKnH9K2DG3d5kPqmsTOB5fB0N1CJ/s1600-h/villi.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179926688535706498" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWAYbOg2YD3xhyDgJjiitD4MJV95Lyct8SNmaqrMZH_Tb4oGuWlpHTrjgtC7sA95Rsx6Ui4vfka8AWc1WN2ODNUX2Ra-oL0AWhuQg-31kYsCYOzzcoOKnH9K2DG3d5kPqmsTOB5fB0N1CJ/s400/villi.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_20/27_27.GIF">http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_20/27_27.GIF</a><br /><br />Notice the lymph vessel (lacteal) located in the center of the villi, surrounded by capillaries. Sugars and amino acids enter the capillaries. Glycerol and fatty acids enter the lacteal.<br />Lactose intolerance is caused by lack of an enzyme called lactase which helps break down the sugar in dairy products called lactose. When unabsorbed, residual amounts left in the GI tract causes fluid retention, gas and bloating.<br />The intake of too many calories (usually fat and carbohydrates) will cause a person to gain weight eventually leading to obesity. Obesity is one of the strongest factors associated with heart disease and diabetes. Our dietary choices have a huge impact on our health and lifespan.<br /><br /><strong>8.4 Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions</strong> </p><br /><p align="left"><br />The pancreas is located behind the stomach and contributes enzymes to the digestion process. The three enzymes are:<br />Pancreatic amylase – digests starch<br />Trypsin – digests protein<br />Lipase – digests fat<br /><br /><br />Insulin is the best known product of the pancreas. Insulin is a blood sugar regulating hormone. When the glucose in our blood becomes elevated, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin. As we age, we can become resistant to insulin which can develop into Diabetes Mellitis II.<br />The liver is the largest metabolic gland in the body. It is located just beneath the diaphragm on the right side of the abdominal<br />cavity.</p><br /><div align="left"><br /></div><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYjeKjcDZquATO1JRzrbtsMU1chQxpLu3KoeDmS2HQQ0O8nVr_0aof905NWBjl78ZnwtWjexXP7WrGoJmHHBQuDG1-VzC_tFjmBFvX4B3-RzQ5TKB8iBpc-eUR5bQFNc_EFpOfM8d91afv/s1600-h/livergal.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179928067220208530" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYjeKjcDZquATO1JRzrbtsMU1chQxpLu3KoeDmS2HQQ0O8nVr_0aof905NWBjl78ZnwtWjexXP7WrGoJmHHBQuDG1-VzC_tFjmBFvX4B3-RzQ5TKB8iBpc-eUR5bQFNc_EFpOfM8d91afv/s400/livergal.bmp" border="0" /></a></p><br /><div><br /></div><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/aha_livergal_art.htm">www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/aha_livergal_art.htm</a></p><br /><div><br /></div><br /><p align="left"><br />The liver removes toxins from our blood and neutralizes them. It also stores the fat soluble vitamins, A, D, E, K and vitamin B12 and iron. The liver stores glycogen for use later and will break down glycerol and amino acids into the same. The byproduct of amino acids is urea which will be excreted by the kidneys.<br />The liver has yet another function, the production of plasma proteins and maintaining cholesterol levels in the blood. It produces bile salts which are stored in the gallbladder. Bile salts reduce fats into smaller droplets in the intestines allowing for further digestion by amylase Bile is green from the breaking down of hemoglobin. If a gallbladder is sluggish at removing the bile, the bile can harden causing gallstones – a painful condition requiring surgical removal or breaking down of such with medications or extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (submersion in water with pulsating waves aimed at the gallbladder to break up the stones). The latter has not been very successful.<br />Disorders of the liver can lead to death. Hepatitis (inflammation) of the liver can cause jaundice – a condition whereby the bile pigments leak into the blood. This causes the yellowing of the sclera and skin. There are 3 common types of viral hepatitis:<br /><strong>Hepatitis A</strong> – transmitted in the stool of an infected person. Contaminated food or water is the most common form of transmission. A vaccine is available.<br /><strong>Hepatitis B</strong> – transmitted through blood or sexual contact. Dirty needles are a common form of transmission. Also mother to child during childbirth. A vaccine is available.<br /><strong>Hepatitis C</strong> – transmitted through blood – dirty needles or bood transfusion prior to 1992. Also mother to child during childbirth. There is no vaccine. Tattoos or body piercing have been vehicles of transmission due to poor health practices. It is rare to become infected with Hepatitis C through sexual contact. Can be chronic, precursor to liver cancer and death.<br />Less common:<br /><strong>Hepatitis D</strong> – a defective virus that relies on Hepatitis B to exist.<br /><strong>Hepatitis E</strong> – extremely rare in the USA, transmits same as Hepatitis A.<br />Cirrhosis the process whereby healthy liver tissue is replaced with scar tissue. This can be an auto-immune disorder, and inherited disorder or by blocked bile ducts. Most commonly this is due to chronic alcoholism. The malnourished individual taxes the liver with removing the toxins from alchohol. Obesity is now recognized as another contribution towards cirrhosis because of a diet high in fatty foods.<br /><br />When we smell something yummy, our parasympathetic nervous system stimulates secretions in our stomach. I’ve noticed a salivary response as well. Baking cookies does this for me . . .<br /><a href="http://www.kk.org/streetuse/archives/2006/08/dashboard_oven.php">Dashboard Oven</a><br /><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff6600;">MSNBC carried this story on August 3, 2006 datelined in Bedford New Hampshire about a women who uses the </span><a href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14174161/"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff6600;">dashboard in her SUV</span></a><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff6600;"> as an oven to bake cookies. Blistering heat was just what Sandi Fontaine needed to bake cookies for her co-workers — on the dash of her Toyota RAV4. With temperatures soaring Wednesday, Fontaine placed two trays of cookie dough on the dashboard, shut the doors and retreated inside to her air-conditioned office.Fontaine first tested her dashboard oven three years ago. She said anyone can do it; the only requirement is for the outside temperature to be at least 95 degrees, so it will rise to about 200 degrees in the car. "When you open the door to that car," she said, "it's like, oh, my God. It's a wonderful smell." <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWqqoCIc7P_u2hGslgchkeM-oD639hVpI33ZDeCZNwUZmkJu01C37fc3IhHjZC-sCRt0rN5Uuimy5joDuikrZP35-J8wmTHoUfJE5rShJyRTKfitcSVdALMODSv0DJx79Z42EKTZGmY9kX/s1600-h/cookies.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179930648495553490" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWqqoCIc7P_u2hGslgchkeM-oD639hVpI33ZDeCZNwUZmkJu01C37fc3IhHjZC-sCRt0rN5Uuimy5joDuikrZP35-J8wmTHoUfJE5rShJyRTKfitcSVdALMODSv0DJx79Z42EKTZGmY9kX/s400/cookies.jpg" border="0" /></a></span><br /><a href="http://www.kk.org/streetuse/archives/vehicles/" target="_top">www.kk.org/streetuse/archives/vehicles/</a><br /><br /><br />A meal high in protein will stimulate gastrin. The duodenum will produce<br />secretin – stimulates production of bicarbonate from the liver and pancreas – and CCK (cholecystokinin) – stimulates pancreatic enzymes and bile production. </p><br /><p align="left"><br /><strong>8.5 The Large Intestine and Defecation</strong> </p><br /><p align="left"><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir6o8gdESAT09U4QzvBf7TQL0B5nLTwHrv4RZyfUPFfnt_gJKl3x_srvNpMImhZfNIvVdG2C3nTwbdlCq-SXGpSvWAdZwPTbbWFb5VPqj14QY6nWirQs65fKp3uE81OJ32Ms7_e8RI9wfB/s1600-h/lg+intestine.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179928071515175842" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir6o8gdESAT09U4QzvBf7TQL0B5nLTwHrv4RZyfUPFfnt_gJKl3x_srvNpMImhZfNIvVdG2C3nTwbdlCq-SXGpSvWAdZwPTbbWFb5VPqj14QY6nWirQs65fKp3uE81OJ32Ms7_e8RI9wfB/s400/lg+intestine.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.mtsinai.on.ca/familialgicancer/Diseases/FAP/where.htm" target="_top">http://www.mtsinai.on.ca/familialgicancer/Diseases/FAP/where.htm</a><br /><br />The large intestine is where feces is formed. This is material composed of indigestible materials and bacteria. The large intestine absorbs water – not nutrients. The bacteria in the large intestines produce the B vitamins and most of vitamin K. Peristalsis (involuntary contractions that move GI contents) culminates in defecation or elimination of fecal matter.<br />Some disorders of the large intestine:<br />Diarrhea – loose watery stools caused by infection or nervous stimulation.<br />Constipation – hard, dry stools preventing regular defecation.<br />Hemorrhoids – painful, enlarged and inflamed blood vessels at the anus. This can be due to straining, pregnancy, or may be hereditary.<br />Diverticulosis – pockets that form in the mucosa that have pushed through the next layer of bowel. These can become inflamed and painful.<br />Irritable Bowel Syndrome – strong irregular contractions that may cause cramping, gas, and urgency.<br />Inflammatory Bowel Disease – inflammation that can develop into ulcers. Symptoms are very similar to irritable bowel syndrome.<br />Polyps and Cancer – growths that will develop from the lining of the epithelium. Diet is believed to have a profound influence on it’s development and progression. </p><br /><p align="left"><br /><strong>8.6 Nutrition and Weight Control</strong><br /><br />Obesity is becoming a global problem. Its incidence has doubled in the USA in the last 20 years. It seems that wherever personal income increases, obesity soon follows. In Brazil and Colombia the figure is now 40% of the population. Obesity is defined by one’s body mass index (BMI). <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTXsDOmOS-FR-XEKqy-d1SDtJD5RybAG2tjd_ZP1ctTOIUcRY0QS7atNuXKSeDR0Rr8qcktszhCnx-Pa9WXKY3aSTLyS4YFCl1TX4vvos9ThoAkKjRlIQq6oleWWTaPpvDK0j4ByHlCMN5/s1600-h/bmi.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179928071515175858" style="CURSOR: hand" height="348" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTXsDOmOS-FR-XEKqy-d1SDtJD5RybAG2tjd_ZP1ctTOIUcRY0QS7atNuXKSeDR0Rr8qcktszhCnx-Pa9WXKY3aSTLyS4YFCl1TX4vvos9ThoAkKjRlIQq6oleWWTaPpvDK0j4ByHlCMN5/s400/bmi.bmp" width="566" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.gov.ky/pls/portal/url/page/cighome/pressroom/archive/200608/goodnutrition/bodymassindex" target="_top">http://www.gov.ky/pls/portal/url/page/cighome/pressroom/archive/200608/goodnutrition/bodymassindex</a><br /><br />The BMI determines the percentage of body fat in your weight. This is most accurate for the average person. A weight lifter with a lot of muscle mass will have a misleading BMI.<br />Nutrients are substances from the environment that plants and animals need to function.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvcF8WNydrqHLclZf6yOzLqs4Ofxe4rPmVySp2qUyEi6YBPpIKGsN4nHPkX06_mLoxIgszDolurO4aU6hW-H_q6dGZ1WFpkKvrbexn9uh2cgrqeObTrHjk7sM27zuvg_1qWp5qzFtz3ien/s1600-h/nutrients.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179928075810143170" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvcF8WNydrqHLclZf6yOzLqs4Ofxe4rPmVySp2qUyEi6YBPpIKGsN4nHPkX06_mLoxIgszDolurO4aU6hW-H_q6dGZ1WFpkKvrbexn9uh2cgrqeObTrHjk7sM27zuvg_1qWp5qzFtz3ien/s400/nutrients.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.bim.ie/uploads/text_content/images/naf_comparison_nutrients.gif">http://www.bim.ie/uploads/text_content/images/naf_comparison_nutrients.gif</a><br /><br />Carbohydrates – simple and complex are the 2 types of carbohydrates. “Simple carbohydrates included sugars such as fruit sugar (fructose), corn or grape sugar (dextrose or glucose), and table sugar (sucrose). Complex carbohydrates included everything made of three or more linked sugars. Complex carbohydrates were thought to be the healthiest to eat, while sugars weren't so great. It turns out that the picture is more complicated than that. “ <span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;">http</span><a href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates.html"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;">//www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates.html</span></a> The body handles all carbs the same and will break them down into single sugar molecules. It’s the fiber in the sources of complex carbohydrates that cannot be broken down. This undigested fiber will absorb excess fats to be excreted later thereby lowering cholesterol.<br />The glycemic index is the most accurate way of determining the impact of specific carbohydrates on the blood glucose levels and insulin response. It measures how quickly these foods raise glucose levels in our blood. It is believed that chronic elevated glucose levels can lead to diabetes, insulin resistance, heart and liver disease.<br />Proteins – the building block of cells. Proteins are broken down into amino acids which are utilized by our cells to form cellular proteins. There are 20 different amino acids – eight which are essential. Two servings of meat a day will complete our body’s requirements for proteins. A vegetarian will ingest proteins by eating beans and peas. These individually are incomplete protein sources and must be combined to provide the essential 8 needed for protein synthesis. Too much protein will tax the liver and kidneys as they work to maintain homeostasis.<br />Lipids are the fats in our diet. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature – these are usually animal sources with the exception of palm and coconut oils. These will raise low-density lipoprotein (“bad” cholesterol) levels. Polyunsaturated are favorable and don’t promote cardiovascular disease. These supply linolenic and linoleic acids. Monosaturated fats are considered protective against CV disease. Some fish sources and olive and canola oils are examples of these. These will lower LDL levels.<br />Trans fats are commercially altered fats to mimic the consistency of lards and butter. These have been found to cause atherosclerotic changes and should be avoided.<br />Macrominerals and microminerals (trace) are utilized by our bodies for a variety of functions. MIcrominerals are needed in lesser quantities than macro – less than 5 grams are present in our bodies. These trace minerals are attached to a larger molecules. Zinc, Iron, Copper, Iodine, Selenium, and Manganese are just a part of the family of trace minerals.<br />Macrominerals are present in our bodies in quantities greater than 5 grams.<br />Calcium strengthens bones and teeth, promotes nerve conduction and muscle contraction.<br />Phosphorus helps promote bone and soft tissue growth and is part of the makeup of ATP, nucleic acids and phospholipids. 85% of the body’s phosphorus is found in the bone. Phosphorus as also a buffer.<br />Potassium is a mineral needed for nerve conduction and muscle contraction. It is a positively charged ion, more abundant inside the cells.<br />Sodium and chloride are the principle ions extracellularly contributing to water balance. Elevated sodium levels can cause edema and HTN.<br />Magnesium is vital in over 300 metabolic processes, the conversion of ATP, protein synthesis, bone structure, ion transfer across cell membranes, etc. </p><br /><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-0MVSWtKUBv8ix4BRK-A6fr0g4lnRRvie95Z95XeVtCk4T31UVmYOWdZ8uPXRz1PHfiTjpNMCcILsmq0s4u8E8rshl30DqDoy1kN2Lm_AxZN3xinN7jUhHQWSKz5ZfqCRabamTBw4H83I/s1600-h/Dietary_minerals.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179930652790520802" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-0MVSWtKUBv8ix4BRK-A6fr0g4lnRRvie95Z95XeVtCk4T31UVmYOWdZ8uPXRz1PHfiTjpNMCcILsmq0s4u8E8rshl30DqDoy1kN2Lm_AxZN3xinN7jUhHQWSKz5ZfqCRabamTBw4H83I/s400/Dietary_minerals.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Periodic_table_of_the_chemical_elements_%281-118%29Dietary_minerals.PNG">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Periodic_table_of_the_chemical_elements_%281-118%29Dietary_minerals.PNG</a> </p><br /><p align="center"><br /></p><br /><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Mineral content of assorted types of <strong><span style="color:#ff6600;">chocolate</span></strong></span></p><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWbn1kH5FDNlSt_RliCbdpIE0kpRQZ4-LODjrTcRLyr_iQbJcUnQuekI0O_xLhfOQ07u4Pp1LZHTWuh2CvT734YUq2rktO3Yey9DQ8f8mshVPd-E2ICN441CYj8r2sdHL93Ail5zcoFeZN/s1600-h/mineral+chart.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179930657085488114" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWbn1kH5FDNlSt_RliCbdpIE0kpRQZ4-LODjrTcRLyr_iQbJcUnQuekI0O_xLhfOQ07u4Pp1LZHTWuh2CvT734YUq2rktO3Yey9DQ8f8mshVPd-E2ICN441CYj8r2sdHL93Ail5zcoFeZN/s400/mineral+chart.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.allchocolate.com/images/Content%20Charts/4.2.3-MineralChart.gif">http://www.allchocolate.com/images/Content%20Charts/4.2.3-MineralChart.gif</a> </p><br /><p align="left"><br />Vitamins are compounds needed by our bodies that we cannot produce on our own. Many vitamins are enzyme helpers (coenzymes). They are reusable resources and are needed only in small amounts. Vitamins C, E, and A are antioxidants that help to defend against free radicals. Those are extra unstable molecules that donate electrons to DNA resulting in cellular damage. </p><br /><div>To follow are a list of vitamins, the chemical name, the solubility, recommended dietary allowances for a male, age 19-70, Upper Intake Level(UL/day), and disease caused by the vitamin deficiency and overdose disease if known.<br /><a title="Vitamin A" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A">Vitamin A</a> - <a title="Retinoids" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinoids">Retinoids</a>(<a title="Retinol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinol">retinol</a>, <a title="Retinoids" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinoids">retinoids</a>and <a title="Carotenoid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid">carotenoids</a>)<br />Fat soluable<br />900- 3000 µg a day <span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause<br /></span><a title="Night-blindness" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night-blindness">Night-blindness</a> and<a title="Keratomalacia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratomalacia">Keratomalacia</a></div><br /><div><span style="color:#3333ff;">Overdose causes </span><a title="Hypervitaminosis A" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_A">Hypervitaminosis A</a></div><br /><div><br /><a title="B vitamins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitamins">Vitamin B1</a> - <a title="Thiamine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamine">Thiamine</a><br />Water soluable<br />1.2 - ? mg a day<br />Deficiencies cause <a title="Beriberi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberi">Beriberi</a><br /><br /><a title="Riboflavin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin">Vitamin B2</a>-<a title="Riboflavin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin">Riboflavin</a><br />Water Soluable<br />1.3 - ? mg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause</span> <a title="Ariboflavinosis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariboflavinosis">Ariboflavinosis</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3366ff;">Vitamin B3-</span><a title="Niacin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin">Niacin</a>, <a title="Niacinamide" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinamide">niacinamide</a><br />Water Soluable<br />16.0 - 35.0 mg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause</span> <a title="Pellagra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagra">Pellagra</a></div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Vitamin B5-</span><a title="Pantothenic acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acid">Pantothenic acid</a><br />Water Soluable<br />5.0 - ? mg</div><br /><div><a title="Paresthesia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesia">Deficiencies cause Paresthesia</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Vitamin B6-</span><a title="Pyridoxine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxine">Pyridoxine</a>, <a title="Pyridoxamine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxamine">pyridoxamine</a>, <a title="Pyridoxal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxal">pyridoxal</a><br />Water Soluable<br />1.3-1.7 mg not to exceed 100 mg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause </span><a title="Anaemia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaemia">Anemia</a>, </div><br /><div><span style="color:#3333ff;">Overdose causes</span> <span style="color:#3333ff;">Impairment of </span><a title="Proprioception" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"><span style="color:#3333ff;">proprioception</span></a><span style="color:#3333ff;">, nerve damage</span></div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Vitamin B7-</span><a title="Biotin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotin">Biotin</a><br />Water Soluable<br />30.0 µg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause </span><a title="Dermatitis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatitis">Dermatitis</a>, <a title="Enteritis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteritis">enteritis</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Vitamin B9-</span><a title="Folic acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid">Folic acid</a>, <a title="Folinic acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acid">folinic acid</a><br />Water Soluable<br />400 - 1000 µg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with </span><a title="Birth defects" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defects"><span style="color:#3333ff;">birth defects</span></a><span style="color:#3333ff;">, such as </span><a title="Neural tube" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tube"><span style="color:#3333ff;">neural tube</span></a><span style="color:#3333ff;"> defects</span><br /></div><br /><div><span style="color:#3333ff;">Vitamin B12-</span><a title="Cyanocobalamin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a>, <a title="Hydroxycobalamin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxycobalamin">hydroxycobalamin</a>, <a title="Methylcobalamin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcobalamin">methylcobalamin</a><br />Water soluable<br />2.4 µg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause</span> <a title="Megaloblastic anaemia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic_anaemia">Megaloblastic anaemia</a><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb12">[18]</a><br /><br /><a title="Vitamin C" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C">Vitamin C</a>-<a title="Ascorbic acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbic_acid">Ascorbic acid</a><br />Water soluable<br />90.0 - 2,000 mg a day<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause</span> <a title="Scurvy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvy">Scurvy</a><br /><br /><a title="Vitamin D" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D">Vitamin D</a>-<a title="Ergocalciferol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergocalciferol">Ergocalciferol</a>, <a title="Cholecalciferol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a><br />Fat soluable<br />5.0 -10 µg not to exceed 50 µg a day</div><br /><div><a title="Rickets" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickets">Deficiencies cause Rickets</a> and <a title="Osteomalacia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Overdose causes </span><a title="Hypervitaminosis D" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D">Hypervitaminosis D</a></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><a title="Vitamin E" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_E">Vitamin E</a>-<a title="Tocopherol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherol">Tocopherols</a>, <a title="Tocotrienol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocotrienol">tocotrienols</a><br />Fat soluable<br />15.0 - 1,000 mg a day<br />Deficiency is very rare; mild <a title="Hemolytic anemia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_anemia">hemolytic anemia</a> in newborn infants.</div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div><a title="Vitamin K" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_K">Vitamin K</a>-<a title="Phylloquinone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloquinone">phylloquinone</a>, <a title="Menaquinone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menaquinone">menaquinones</a><br />Fat<br />120 µg<br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Deficiencies cause </span><a title="Bleeding diathesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_diathesis">Bleeding diathesis</a><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin</a></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div>A balanced diet should include foods from all food groups and in amounts not to exceed your caloric requirements. A healthy diet should be composed of more vegetables, whole grains, and fruits. Low fat meats and fish or beans and peas should be used for protein requirements. Activity levels will change the amount of calories expended and thereby change your requirements.<br />Eating disorders are more common among women than men. Anorexia nervosa is an irrational fear of becoming fat. Many women have self-imposed starvation culminating in their deaths as a result of this disorder. Bulimia nervosa is binging followed by purging. Purging is achieved by vomiting or laxatives. Again, the motivation is to avoid gaining weight. A bing-eating disorder is binging not followed by purging. Food binges can be triggered by emotional stresses or disorders. Muscle dysmorphia is a male-dominated disorder that causes the man to perceive himself as being underdeveloped. His life becomes consumed with weight lifting, supplements and dieting to achieve the perfect musculature. </div><div></div><div align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Sound mind, sound body.</span></div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-xLVqO08vtwnYFhf1ngQ_M5Kn4G6IoJx_KMS8CCCPdeaDKew7DcUXceNPB5BRf_68MXXZAEBrVCv0Pka4zBe2hzEDOknABaHsC3u4vnJNPWXdQ_eARrI3R_pVw2DYHOV4JlkHX0el1AWf/s1600-h/Healthy%2520Foods.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5179935325714938882" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-xLVqO08vtwnYFhf1ngQ_M5Kn4G6IoJx_KMS8CCCPdeaDKew7DcUXceNPB5BRf_68MXXZAEBrVCv0Pka4zBe2hzEDOknABaHsC3u4vnJNPWXdQ_eARrI3R_pVw2DYHOV4JlkHX0el1AWf/s400/Healthy%2520Foods.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div><a href="http://www.ok.gov/strongandhealthy/images/Healthy%20Foods.jpg">http://www.ok.gov/strongandhealthy/images/Healthy%20Foods.jpg</a></div></div>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-70679956055989232192008-03-09T23:24:00.000-07:002008-03-09T23:43:43.933-07:00Unit II Blood Pressure Online Lab<div align="center"><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong>Unit II Blood Pressure Online Lab</strong></span><br /></div><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.<br /></span>Hypertension will develop in men more often and at a younger age than women.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.</span><br />As we age, our arteries may harden or develop areas of plaque which increases resistance. The younger the sampling of people, the lower the average blood pressures would be. Men typically have higher blood pressure than women. This may be due partially to their mass. More mass means more capillaries and increased labor for the heart to move blood. That is also why being overweight is detrimental. Genetics, exercise, gender, family history, obesity, and smoking are all influencing factors. So if older, smoking, overweight men were to become non-smoking, average women, their blood pressure issues would nearly cease. Of course, then, there would be other issues . . .<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?<br /></span>I will average the readings for each group. I will read the chart/history of each person with an elevated blood pressure and note contributing factors. Then the data will be reviewed and compared between groups and evaluated for simularities and dissimularites.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.<br /></span>Three out of ten males ages 35-44 have hypertension (HTN).<br />Factors are:<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">*</span> Family history of HTN (2 out of 3)<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">* </span>More than 40 pounds overweight (2 out of 3)<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">* </span>One has a salty diet<br />If these men were ages 18-24, two of them would hypertensive. Factors for this age range are:<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">*</span> Around 40 pounds or more overweight<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">*</span> Family history of HTN<br />Remarkably, the statistics did not change much for such a young group. However, if these men were to become women, all their troubles would be cured (just kidding). Women seem to be influenced more by increased sodium chloride intake. There was only one hypertensive female in all of the gender sampling with a family history of HTN and elevated sodium chloride intake. A second subject also was overweight by 45 pounds. Seven out of 50 males were hypertensive, whereas 2 out of 50 females were hypertensive.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?<br /></span>Men do indeed have higher blood pressure on average. They also develop it earlier. The blood pressures begin to climb in men as early as 18-24; in women, it begins to rise in the 35-44 age range. This rising trend continues as we age with obesity contributing as well. This confirms my hypothesis that being male, aging, and overweight can contribute to HTN.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?<br /></span>7 out of 50 males had HTN. Of those 7, 5 had a positive family history of HTN and 5 were 40 pounds or more overweight. Two of the 7 had a salty diet. Three did not exercise regularly.<br />2 out of 50 females had HTN. Both had salty diets. One was 45 pounds overweight and the other subject had a family history of HTN.<br />All of these findings contribute to elevated blood pressures. Exercise, low sodium diets and calorie restriction would probably influence their readings to a more normal range.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?<br /></span>My risk factors are listed on the previous question. I believe the most common risk factor is the family history of HTN.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?<br /></span>The American Heart Association states, "Comparing data from the four surveys, researchers found a trend between overweight and high blood pressure in children 8 to 17 years old. Obesity is one of the strongest predictors of hypertension in young adults" <span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;">http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3019556</span> All of the previously mentioned factors, genetics, family history, smoking, salt consumption, exercise, will contribute negatively for HTN. The more strikes you have, the worse your situation will be. Fortunately, we are able to control many of these factors through personal life style choices. Annual check-ups would help to detect the need to impliment these changes or take medication early in the disease process. Hypertension is called "the Silent Killer" because it can go unchecked for years causing irreversable damage to kidneys, heart, brain, etc. and perhaps culminating in death.<br /><br /><p align="left"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5175998511493155954" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 440px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 175px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" height="150" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_Qg3S0PZsc6SNRzjSXaj_7bIel8BGvQ5fIfkOx0sOAKnBko7fuCvExrFwVdGPxLq4YybdFU6JrIMBBs1vHxyUU43J1xjPZFwyfm6UVyeusqYZAjKXbRg_13R6HxwbwR-GBCj5IWGeteoK/s400/BP+table.jpg" width="462" border="0" /></p><p></p><p></p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-45806687708861192642008-02-22T10:23:00.000-08:002008-03-15T22:14:56.137-07:00Compendium Chapters 5-7<div align="center"> </div><div align="center"><br /><span style="font-family:verdana;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Compendium</span></strong> </span></span></div><div align="center"></div><div align="center"> </div><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_P-sPCR6lTrX9quN8TyC8YZNOBQaE8Y1A-ofdL5tnOqbC67OwKVZE4_N3VIs5088-gYf6ap0KynHmoVbPBMdHGbLPNH_9q4zJsqab1U2Ent3XRY6Qp_BdvYjkH2VK_b17Mp_tmQXyKhDQ/s1600-h/coronary_heart.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169872642609954530" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 826px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 9px" height="102" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_P-sPCR6lTrX9quN8TyC8YZNOBQaE8Y1A-ofdL5tnOqbC67OwKVZE4_N3VIs5088-gYf6ap0KynHmoVbPBMdHGbLPNH_9q4zJsqab1U2Ent3XRY6Qp_BdvYjkH2VK_b17Mp_tmQXyKhDQ/s320/coronary_heart.bmp" width="96" border="0" /></a></p><div align="center"> </div><div align="left"><strong>Chapters 5-7</strong><br /><br /><strong>5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System</div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169874790093602642" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0Td6vxjsBoWDFCCF_50SgETtQi2Ct6GxEDZwSGvCSQtJSlU-ZJcRwfZKZYTR4JWnAsB6iWO45Prqavi9KzGzlbDYZgEiqq8hrWsqu-EP3isJpqGt2H0zhaorQODbrzs1taDyceR5JMLNX/s400/cardio.jpg" border="0" /> <p align="center"><br /></strong> <a href="http://www.anatomium.com/cardio.jpg"><span style="color:#3333ff;">www.anatomium.com/cardio.jpg</span></a><br /><br /></p><p>Basically, the cardiovascular system is the heart and blood vessels. The heart contracts and sends blood throughout the body. Functions include:<br />* Circulates oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.<br />* Provides cells with nutrients.<br />* Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.<br />* Protects the body against disease and infection.<br />* Clotting stops bleeding after injury .<br />* Transports hormones to target cells and organs.<br />* Helps regulate body temperature. <a href="http://www.cancerindex.org/medterm/medtm8.htm">(http://www.cancerindex.org/medterm/medtm8.htm</a>)<br />The lymphatic system consists of organs, ducts, and nodes. It transports a watery clear fluid called lymph. This fluid distributes immune cells and other factors throughout the body. It also interacts with the blood circulatory system to drain fluid from cells and tissues. The lymphatic system contains immune cells called lymphocytes, which protect the body against antigens (viruses, bacteria, etc.) that invade the body. See more on lymphocytes below.<br /><strong>Main functions of lymphatic system</strong>:<br />· To collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma protein to the blood, and thus help maintain fluid balance,<br />· To defend the body against disease by producing lymphocytes,<br />· To absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to the blood (<a href="http://www.lymphomation.org/lymphatic.htm">http://www.lymphomation.org/lymphatic.htm</a>) </p><p><br /><strong>5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels</strong> </p><p><br /><strong>The arteries</strong>- comprised of endothelium, smooth muscle, and elastic tissue. These combinations of tissues provide support and the ability to expand to accommodate increased pressure. When these vessels are dilated, blood pressure is lowered. Smaller arteries, still visible to the naked eye, are called arterioles.<br /><strong>The Capillaries</strong> – narrow, microscopic vessels, branching out from arterioles. Their walls are a single layer of epithelial cells. These form an intricate web throughout the body so that no cell is far from a capillary. Capillaries open and close at different times. An interesting example of this is that when you eat, capillaries open in the digestive system and close in the muscular system. That’s why it’s not wise to swim shortly after eating. When the capillaries are closed in the muscles, you will experience cramping for lack of oxygen to feed those working muscles (remember fermentation and the byproduct of lactate) resulting in muscle cramps or worse.<br /><strong>The Veins</strong> – drain spent blood from the capillaries. These have the same three tissues as the arteries in different proportions, so are thinner. The pumping heart does not move blood in the veins, they have valves that will move blood back towards the heart. When a valve malfunctions, blood will pool in that section of the vein causing it to bulge and varicose veins will result. Veins hold more blood than arteries (70%) and in time of shock or bleeding, the nervous system will signal the veins to constrict to supply more blood for the rest of the body. </p><p><strong>5.3 The Heart is a Double Pump </strong></p><p><strong><br /></strong>Primarily composed of the myocardium, cardiac muscle tissue, the heart has four chambers and is covered by a pericardium. The pericardium is a lubricated sac that covers and protects the heart. The septum is a wall inside the heart that separates it into halves. Each half has two chambers, a smaller atrium and larger ventricle. These are separated by atrioventricular valves to keep the blood flowing in the right direction. There are also lunar valves between the ventricles and their attached vessels for the same purpose. Blood enters the right side of the heart into the right atrium, to the right ventricle, then the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. After oxygenation, the blood returns via the pulmonary veins into the left </p><div align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Diagram of the human heart showing anatomy and circulation</span></div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169874781503668034" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4rqVC4RDi-BiU4lKmGNk4ZEknZg81E9an206kqVYzpU3eP4fxoxnzxxnb9i-08PaY0i5aJlgZ2LdSwx0USsSxdaT9Vqbj6mxDA8HfqN0XCgfKVlB_TfE3Z-Q2yDDlqkwSN_7nkcPQ3zl_/s400/heart.jpg" border="0" /> <a href="http://www.medicalook.com/Heart_diseases/" target="_top">www.medicalook.com/Heart_diseases/</a><br /><br />atrium through the bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle to the aorta and rest of the circulatory system.<br />Each pump of the heart requires two contractional events. The atria contract followed by the ventricles. Systole is the point where the chambers contract and diastole is the resting phase between beats. The SA node is the pacemaker located in the right atrium and this initiates the atrium to contract. Then the AV node stimulates the ventricles. If the SA node should malfunction, the AV node will pace the heart, but at a slower rate. When someone’s heart fails to pace normally, the doctors may decide that external pacing is needed and will implant a device that will pace effectively. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) record the electrical changes in the myocardium during cardiac cycles. Damage from muscle incurred from a myocardial infarction will alter the muscle’s ability to contract and change the electrical pattern received by the ECG or mispaced hearts will also demonstrate abnormalities. <p align="left"><br /><strong>5.4 Features of the Cardiovascular System </strong></p><p align="left"><strong><br /></strong>The surge of blood you feel at your wrist is a pulse, indicating that your heart just cycled. There are several places on your body where a pulse can be detected. A blood pressure is a reading of the pressure in the arteries at systole (chambers contract) and diastole (the resting phase between beats). In healthy people, the pressure will decrease as distance increases from the heart. Blood flow is the slowest in the capillaries to allow for the exchange of matter with the tissues. Flow in veins is influenced by the contraction of muscles which squeeze the veins, respirations which provide resistance and removal of same, and the valves which keep things going the right direction. </p><p align="left"><br /><strong>5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways </strong></p><p align="left"><strong><br /></strong>There are two main pathways that our blood takes to service our bodies.<br />The Pulmonary Circuit – from the right ventricle through the lunar valve to the pulmonary trunk which divides into pulmonary arteries, to both lungs. There, the capillaries exchange carbon dioxide (waste) for oxygen. The oxygen rich blood returns via pulmonary veins to the left atrium.<br />The Systemic Circuit – from the left ventricle to the aorta which branches, two branches go up to the carotid arteries and then the brain/head, the subclavian arteries feed the arms. The main aorta turns downward and form branches that feed the visceral organs, trunk and legs. The heart is fed by branches off of the aorta, not directly by the blood in its own chambers. </p><p align="left"><br /><strong>5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries</strong> </p><p align="left"><br />Higher pressure on the arteriole side of the capillary forces nutrients out into the surrounding tissue fluid. Lower pressure on the venous end of the capillary allows for waste matter and extra water to return. Lymphatic capillaries collect remaining extra fluid for transport as well. </p><div align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Capillaries, tissue cells, and lymphatic capillaries</span><br /></div><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169874777208700722" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7PTnM9l_TsfzIYV0u34I6pGlU2JnO3cWqT4DkT94MEVcRFPC2Nt3A5HXOAluoio1exgM334a_ixKkQ9PEG12ratitOmJHUEYoYlzPYDeMvx1deLCOqJsbd42ezUm2i2IBZWvX2R898w3g/s400/blood_and_lymphatic_capillaries.jpg" border="0" /><a href="http://www.moe.gov.sg/edumall/tl/digital_resources/biology31.htm">http://www.moe.gov.sg/edumall/tl/digital_resources/biology31.htm</a> </p><p><br /><strong>5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders </strong></p><p><strong><br /></strong>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is prevalent in Western counties. Some steps can be taken to prevent or slow the progression of these disorders.<br /></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Graph demonstrating categories for increased </span></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">risk of coronary heart disease</span> <img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169874768618766114" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioHyGHRuq1Hqq7rwXBPBuVVqpgmUaUfzXEKBQwk3LpSFyGNAGZvM7FkMSAI_ag7b0gvssy7p08WbNG68MaxVfA2NpLrlVb3UjOOw5yrPFILFLvKiYMXVLsUoJoZkywbaxuktJLs-qbCy2K/s400/coronary_heart.bmp" border="0" /><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.cvd.idf.org/webdata/img/fig21_coronary_heart.gif">http://www.cvd.idf.org/webdata/img/fig21_coronary_heart.gif</a> </span></p><span style="color:#3333ff;"><p align="left"></span>Hypertension (high blood pressure) – when the pressure inside the arteries is higher than normal (140/90). Hypertension is a silent killer. There are seldom any symptoms and can be detected only by having your blood pressure taken. People who have hypertension that is not treated are much more likely to die from or be disabled by cardiovascular complications such as strokes, heart attacks, heart failure, aneurysms, heart rhythm irregularities, and kidney failure than people who have normal blood pressure.<br />Atherosclerosis (plaque) is often found within the arteries of those who have hypertension. As plaque continues to grow, it reduces the interior diameter of the lumen, restricting the blood flow. These can remain stationary (thrombus) or can break free and lodge elsewhere (embolus) causing heart damage or stroke or other complications.<br />We have medicine which dissolves clots and aspirin is used to prevent the formation of clots, but these remedies are not without risk. Bypass operations create new circulation to areas affected by clotted arteries. These can be painful and with complications, prevention is always best. A newer procedure involving catheter insertion of a stent (tube with slots) is less traumatic. Patients can go home the next day.<br />Smoking, drug abuse, and obesity all contribute to hypertension. Exercise and a healthy diet which is low in fat and high in fiber has shown to reduce risk.<br />Heart failure is simply inability of the heart to pump normally. This in increasing because people are surviving heart attacks which have left them with damaged heart muscle. Sometimes a pacer/defibrillator is implanted to correct pacing issues. These do not address weakened heart muscle. Heart transplants are reserved for the severely compromised. These are a radical fix requiring a lifetime commitment of powerful anti-rejection drugs. There is also a shortage of hearts available. Pigs may soon provide a source of such after genetic manipulation. A few patients have received mechanical hearts, but survived only a short time. </p><br /><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Picture of mechanical heart</span></p><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHv_3_H0mE30n4c3RW_5np-lK1zduaNppB3aGmh0EjdGqPT06shYdORaBv43k3kGOLfTnFBVQf2iYNPbK_42LoXOmJqqAzwmxTXvx2PjYiAjPVUBbhcYDSEy5gHD23t9CR3T9Zl4Z13_No/s1600-h/artificialheart_zoom.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5169876770073526114" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHv_3_H0mE30n4c3RW_5np-lK1zduaNppB3aGmh0EjdGqPT06shYdORaBv43k3kGOLfTnFBVQf2iYNPbK_42LoXOmJqqAzwmxTXvx2PjYiAjPVUBbhcYDSEy5gHD23t9CR3T9Zl4Z13_No/s400/artificialheart_zoom.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg&imgrefurl">http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg&imgrefurl</a></span></p><p align="center"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"></span></p><br /><p align="left"><strong>Chapter 6 Cardiovascular System: Blood<br /></strong><br /><strong>6.1 Blood: An Overview<br /></strong>The average adult has 5 liters of blood coursing through their veins with every heartbeat. Blood has three basic functions:<br /><strong>Delivery</strong> – blood delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products to include carbon dioxide and other substances to and from various tissues and organs.<br /><strong>Defense</strong> – blood contains cells that can destroy pathogens and antibodies which render these useless for destruction by the white blood cells. Blood also contains platelets to aid in clotting.<br /><strong>Regulates</strong> – blood helps to maintain body temperature by circulating warmed blood throughout the body. The minerals in our blood also help maintain the water-salt balance and buffers maintain a pH balance.<br />Blood is composed of 91% water, 71% proteins, and 2% solutes (ions, waste products, gases, hormones, vitamins, etc.). The formed elements are the red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. These are produced in bone marrow from stem cells. Stem cell research is focusing on producing many other types of cells from these stem cells in hopes of curing many types of debilitating diseases. Plasma is the fluid portion of blood and is the medium through which all substances are transported. The plasma also transports nutrients for cells to include small glucose molecules and amino acids and transports urea (waste) to the kidneys. Plasma proteins are the most abundant of organic molecules in the blood. These are produced by the liver and buffer the blood to maintain pH. These won’t pass through the capillaries and help maintain osmotic pressure between the blood and surrounding tissue fluid.<br />There are 3 types of plasma proteins:<br /><strong>Albumins </strong>– most abundant and help maintain osmotic pressure<br /><strong>Globulins</strong> – alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha help transport hormones, cholesterol and iron. Beta also transports some materials. Gamma globulins help fight disease.<br /><strong>Fibrinogen</strong> – helps form clots.</p><br /><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">How white blood cells are made</span> </p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLmN4wlVPPZb806p2V8myf19-XjLAi6xzBiQa32PSMPlweSVX4lKwjtWXQHwGwhKUrJmg8pwZQpHcAwRRX0rdUcZqgPMD1pnaSt7FuUUMJLIXuNVHJqLqEa6XTwcFhuR5IBXpvT0XHuHKo/s1600-h/blood_cell_lineage.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5171752326457114546" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLmN4wlVPPZb806p2V8myf19-XjLAi6xzBiQa32PSMPlweSVX4lKwjtWXQHwGwhKUrJmg8pwZQpHcAwRRX0rdUcZqgPMD1pnaSt7FuUUMJLIXuNVHJqLqEa6XTwcFhuR5IBXpvT0XHuHKo/s400/blood_cell_lineage.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH2ZgfzaqwWUQlebXFcoX2ghoWq1BcvI0pymymzh6PVCI7-uQeJOB06ih-5xKcywHSG8cFtnWYjioih4SJjcYpS3ScjsuAc-aDoUBbbwl2Ge8uFDhT3JSyrTlnYbQ_ba9I-ZnE-08SUgJe/s1600-h/rbc.bmp"></a></p><br /><p align="left"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://training.seer.cancer.gov/ss_module08_lymph_leuk/images/illu_blood_cell_lineage.jpg">http://training.seer.cancer.gov/ss_module08_lymph_leuk/images/illu_blood_cell_lineage.jpg</a> </span></p><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><p align="left"><br /></span><strong>6.2 Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen</strong> </p><p align="left"><br />Red blood cells are designed efficiently for transporting oxygen. They have no nucleus or many organelles other cells have. Instead, they carry hemoglobin. Each hemoglobin molecule carries three or four oxygen molecules and each RBC holds approximately 280 million hemoglobin molecules. The biconcave disc-shaped RBC maximizes its surface area for exchange of gases. The globin of hemoglobin transports about 25% of CO2. The majority of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate and transported in the plasm<br />RBC’s do not reproduce and will die in about 120 days. </p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0ZtDM1TRaJhsoxtksa0JuU2kO7GdnQwk8rqXHzMdBdaC_fmg9h2T4MVJiVDFl-CebXSirhefcmYB1SLqsZcCvtKmBPvjIq03F611FR5d4ZseUeqoubN6EKWyHT8gWigk966JzDZBAcZB4/s1600-h/rbc.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176316016950512946" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0ZtDM1TRaJhsoxtksa0JuU2kO7GdnQwk8rqXHzMdBdaC_fmg9h2T4MVJiVDFl-CebXSirhefcmYB1SLqsZcCvtKmBPvjIq03F611FR5d4ZseUeqoubN6EKWyHT8gWigk966JzDZBAcZB4/s400/rbc.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><p align="left"><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://images.medicinenet.com/images/illustrations/blood_cells.jpg">http://images.medicinenet.com/images/illustrations/blood_cells.jpg</a><br /></span>They are destroyed in the liver and spleen at a rate of 2 million a second. The hemoglobin is recycled as amino acids and iron is re-used in the bone marrow. New RBC’s are produced in bone marrow. Athletes have died trying to increase their RBC count, hence O2 saturation, for competition.<br />Anemia results when there is not enough RBC’s, hemoglobin, iron, B12 or folic acid. Another type of anemia, hemolytic, is the rupture of RBC’s. Sickle-cell disease is a genetic condition whereby the proteins are malformed causing them to rupture as they pass through the capillaries. </p><p align="left"><strong>6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease</strong> </p><p align="left">White blood cells (leukocytes) are produced in the bone marrow. Production is stimulated by a protein called a colony-stimulating factor and can double within hours. These fight infection and can be found in the blood and tissue and lymph fluids. There are different methods employed by the WBC’s to kill or remove pathogens.<br /><strong>Phagocytosis</strong> – the cell surrounds the offending pathogen resulting in its digestion.<br /><strong>Antibodies</strong> – produced by WBC’s to invade and mark antigens (foreign proteins) for destruction.<br />White blood cells are granular or agranular (without grains) referring to enzymes and proteins.<br />Granular leukocytes and the neutrophils (first responders to infection and phagocytes), eosinophils ( increase in presence of allergic reactions or worms) and basophils (releases histamine which dilates blood vessels and restricts airpassages). Agranular leukocytes have nonlobular nuclei. Lymphocytes are approximately 1/3 of all WBC’s. They react to specific pathogens and their poisons. B cells and T cells are types of these lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest and reside in tissues using phagocytosis to kill pathogens.</p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Image from electron microscope of a red blood cell, platelet and white blood cell (from left to right)<br /></span></p><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRNuKQf3kFwOM8j70lO3dQXIM1IoVrdZV3L4OzRy6SMTsDKQsM3MXODvISyPz1NxbbYfu2KDLPDcp4wdjttaTBSLP6QaATgMQ8GSgwidw6jdX9F6aqhz38eHLrvQSefuMbmpfdgfnl0qsL/s1600-h/WBC.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5171749843966017426" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRNuKQf3kFwOM8j70lO3dQXIM1IoVrdZV3L4OzRy6SMTsDKQsM3MXODvISyPz1NxbbYfu2KDLPDcp4wdjttaTBSLP6QaATgMQ8GSgwidw6jdX9F6aqhz38eHLrvQSefuMbmpfdgfnl0qsL/s400/WBC.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center"><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/science/photos/whatis/img/4.jpg">www.abc.net.au/science/photos/whatis/img/4.jpg</a> </p><p align="left">Disorders involving WBC’s include severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID), an inherited disease disabling the immune system completely. The Boy in the Bubble is an example of this disorder. Today, injections of the missing enzyme can restore normalcy, but must be repeated throughout the patient’s lifetime. Gene therapy, if successful, can remedy the situation if the genetically altered implanted marrow remains alive and functioning.<br />Leukemia is cancer involving leukocytes. The specific name of the cancer names the type of WBC affected. The Epstein-Barr virus may infect the lymphocytes and cause infectious mononucleosis. It is one of the most common human viruses. Over 95% of the population is or has been infected. The virus becomes dormant and will reactivate with stress in some cases. Transmission occurs with contact with the saliva of an infected person (hence, “the kissing disease”). <span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;">(<a href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv.htm">http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv.htm</a>) </span></p><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><p align="left"><br /></span><strong>6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting</strong> </p><p align="left"><br />Platelets are the third formed element in blood. They are produced in the bone marrow at a rate of 200 billion a day. These, along with prothrombin and fibrinogen, produce clotting. When a vessel is damaged and leaking of blood results, prothrombin activator is released and converts prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin then severs amino acids from fibrinogen molecules to form fibrin threads. These wind around the platelet plug and catch RBC’s to form a clot and stop the loss of blood. The fibrin clot is temporary and will dissolve when repair is begun on the vessel.<br />Some disorders include thrombocytopenia (low production of platelets) which results in external or internal bleeding and bruising. Clots can form if irregular plaque has formed inside an artery (atherosclerosis). These can remain stationary or become loosened and when lodged elsewhere may cause stroke or heart attack. Hemophilia is a clotting disorder preventing the formation of clots inherited by boys more than girls. </p><p align="left"><strong>6.5 Blood Typing and Transfusions </strong></p><strong><p align="left"><br /></strong>Blood transfusions have saved countless lives. Taking blood from one person and giving it to another is done usually in times of great crisis. Hemorrhages from trauma, surgery, or disease processes can take a life in a very short amount of time. Care, however, must be taken to assure that the proper type of blood is administered. </p><p align="center"><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">There are four ABO blood groups: Type A, B, AB, and O </span><br /></p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSwaJDVYbCXbBcovAQVdwA_zZftZq6k3NScAsc-Lb-mYJWnpK_sjh1UxJICCFvXfMvHq7jlKjhpyjnozGJNFVuhiwaVOZaUDBPZ78z5mMiyzmHlq9OoTfNw7VzZPpSFIPreX_9yf0zEaK4/s1600-h/ABObloodsystem.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5171749835376082802" style="WIDTH: 463px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 270px" height="378" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSwaJDVYbCXbBcovAQVdwA_zZftZq6k3NScAsc-Lb-mYJWnpK_sjh1UxJICCFvXfMvHq7jlKjhpyjnozGJNFVuhiwaVOZaUDBPZ78z5mMiyzmHlq9OoTfNw7VzZPpSFIPreX_9yf0zEaK4/s400/ABObloodsystem.bmp" width="568" border="0" /></a></p><p align="left"><a href="http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/images/ABObloodsystem.gif">http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/images/ABObloodsystem.gif</a><br />If the wrong type is administered to someone, their antibodies will perceive it as a foreign body and attack the red cells causing agglutination or clumping.<br />The Rh factor is a consideration during pregnancy. People with Rh factor are Rh positive. People without Rh factor are Rh negative and will develop antibodies when exposed. If a mom is Rh negative and the baby is Rh positive, the mom will develop antibodies which will destroy the next baby’s red blood cells. A shot of Rh immunoglobulin will be given with 72 hours of the first baby’s delivery to destroy any of the baby’s remaining red blood cells before the mom’s body can produce it’s own thereby assuring that the next baby will not be subject to antibodies. </p><p align="left"><strong>6.6 Homeostasis</strong> </p><p align="left">Homeostasis is balance. Our bodies work through an intricate web of organs, hormones, impulses, electrolytes and fluid balance, etc. Each signals another to perform harder or less to maintain a myriad of levels that will optimize our health and well-being. Our bodies are amazing.<br /><br /><strong>ORGAN SYSTEMS </strong></p><p align="left"><strong><br /></strong>1. Integumentary<br />Body covering. Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands.Function: protect underlying tissues and regulate body temperature<br />2. Skeletal<br />Bones, ligaments, cartilageFunction: Support, movement, protection, and production of blood cells<br />3. Muscular<br />Muscles of the bodyFunction: Movement, maintenance of posture, production of body heat<br />4. Nervous<br />Brain, spinal cord, nerves through the bodyFunction: Communication throughout body, mental activities, maintaining homeostasis<br />5. Endocrine<br />Ductless glands = pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thymus, pineal glandsFunction: Secretion of hormones, communication between body parts<br />6. Digestive<br />Mouth, teeth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, and many glands including the pancreasFunction: Breakdown of food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed (digestion).<br />7. Circulatory<br />Heart, blood vessels, blood. Function: Transports materials throughout the body. *Lymphatic system usually included with the circulatory system<br />8. Urinary<br />Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethraFunction: Removes ("filters") wastes from the blood and helps maintain the body's water and electrolyte balance<br />9. Reproductive<br />Reproductive organs, primarily the ovaries (females) and testes (males)Function: Produce special reproductive cells for reproduction<br /><a href="http://www.biologycorner.com/anatomy/chap1_notes.html" target="_top">www.biologycorner.com/anatomy/chap1_notes.html</a></p><br /><p align="left"><strong>Chapter 7 Lymphatic System and Immunity<br /></strong><br /><strong>7.1 Microbes, Pathogens, and You</strong><br />Microscopic organisms cover every surface, both animate and inanimate. They also reside inside our bodies. Products of fermentation are beer, cheese, wine, and yogurt; all are produced by bacteria. These microbes also cause dead organic materials to decompose down to nutrients in our soil.<br />Pathogens are bacteria and viruses that cause disease. Bacteria are prokaryotes (single-celled organisms without a nucleus) There are 3 types: </p><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8-WZE0nvYshTNnHfhDlE2pD2Z6LIVo1CjAFE5TFW-dgfMmK8sUVHwOtp3i3gCB-qIPlkEHFdZgwaEY1sn0kgqD_bJHi1RB69cbs18R7BvjArFHs31DMypgJ0upO3FnoOnrrUvDjFUxiUk/s1600-h/bacteria.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176306078396189826" style="WIDTH: 517px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 380px" height="423" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8-WZE0nvYshTNnHfhDlE2pD2Z6LIVo1CjAFE5TFW-dgfMmK8sUVHwOtp3i3gCB-qIPlkEHFdZgwaEY1sn0kgqD_bJHi1RB69cbs18R7BvjArFHs31DMypgJ0upO3FnoOnrrUvDjFUxiUk/s400/bacteria.bmp" width="617" border="0" /></a></p><br /><br /><p align="left"><a href="http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/2/2faaa24e75677b6732cd24bf35c357da/shapes.gif">http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/2/2faaa24e75677b6732cd24bf35c357da/shapes.gif</a><br />Penicillin and other “cillin” antibiotics interfer with the production of the cell walls. Some bacteria have sticky coverings over the cell wall so they can adhere to surfaces. Others have flagella which gives them movement. Some have fimbriae, best described as bristles that help the bacteria to attach to host cells or other surfaces. Bacteria have have a hollow tube called a sex pilus which allows the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells. Plasmids are double circular strands of DNA which are separate from the chromosomal DNA. Plasmids enable a cell to become resistant to antibiotics and are also used as vectors in genetic engineering. </p><p align="left"><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Anatomical Diagram of Bacteria</span></p><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGsvnKiq6R6gSVBeeWh46YemVzTUn7R5zI8bV3PZZs4VxLfnyiPfDJoWV8MA1Z07UArATPuXUOT-u9CuGVaQzZgCcUhW9KUxB_ttvBXWOMfdA2SLVEBsDJC7-xkqZnd0igeFP4H66tiarz/s1600-h/bacteria%232.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176306082691157138" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGsvnKiq6R6gSVBeeWh46YemVzTUn7R5zI8bV3PZZs4VxLfnyiPfDJoWV8MA1Z07UArATPuXUOT-u9CuGVaQzZgCcUhW9KUxB_ttvBXWOMfdA2SLVEBsDJC7-xkqZnd0igeFP4H66tiarz/s400/bacteria%232.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://www.ou.edu/class/pheidole/General%20Bacteria.jpg">http://www.ou.edu/class/pheidole/General%20Bacteria.jpg</a><br />Bacteria reproduce through binary fission. The DNA is replicated and separates as the cell enlarges. Each new cell is identical to the original.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKpK3MQk0rt8AQ29Z6apSkOnW4kzevtCHHFpldqKz-oixn9-x6S3cUmb03RzdjnAKRandCGqWrcqkJiRPqywL0ygXPyyF3Qufe9PxA3rtLGNf9VGZks72G8RToFJHW_-To7kAWvpQmKmIO/s1600-h/Binary_fission.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176306086986124450" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKpK3MQk0rt8AQ29Z6apSkOnW4kzevtCHHFpldqKz-oixn9-x6S3cUmb03RzdjnAKRandCGqWrcqkJiRPqywL0ygXPyyF3Qufe9PxA3rtLGNf9VGZks72G8RToFJHW_-To7kAWvpQmKmIO/s400/Binary_fission.bmp" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">h</span><a href="http://www.biocrawler.com/w/images/0/00/Binary_fission.png"><span style="color:#3333ff;">ttp</span>://www.biocrawler.com/w/images/0/00/Binary_fission.png</a><br /><br />Viruses are another pathogen which can be dormant for years. Are they alive? This is debatable, because they are not cellular and are a hundred times smaller than a eukaryotic cell. Once inside cells, they replicate. Viruses are somewhat like a pod used for travelling under water or in outer space. They have an outer capsid </p><br /><br /><p align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8Jhf3RqlwdQJ6WkcjjZCnbzkhc59IprKBKDT6YkWcjOYfrxYV4-vuasD03EwsljFSD6gL-4ECJrJ9FeDyEXV1tOBCb_nv2eoionJR2cgao5byoGlwN_y9lOyu8z6YjUokQUZhcj9LTF_X/s1600-h/pod.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176306086986124466" style="WIDTH: 299px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 227px" height="208" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8Jhf3RqlwdQJ6WkcjjZCnbzkhc59IprKBKDT6YkWcjOYfrxYV4-vuasD03EwsljFSD6gL-4ECJrJ9FeDyEXV1tOBCb_nv2eoionJR2cgao5byoGlwN_y9lOyu8z6YjUokQUZhcj9LTF_X/s400/pod.jpg" width="281" border="0" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6wDGE6AuDSAWtcTki3rkRX3yAc2ZPuZc0mffDLEIj2TWtyeccsjDbQGPj4DcltZxy5vzSIqkw3YtAV1vWdSn9QY1hzhS_3pa6UFCXVYKfALQzfsHfpVcm_sPnZL15rzWVspuP-8O4hEL_/s1600-h/AIDS-pic3.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176308174340230338" style="CURSOR: hand" height="343" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6wDGE6AuDSAWtcTki3rkRX3yAc2ZPuZc0mffDLEIj2TWtyeccsjDbQGPj4DcltZxy5vzSIqkw3YtAV1vWdSn9QY1hzhS_3pa6UFCXVYKfALQzfsHfpVcm_sPnZL15rzWVspuP-8O4hEL_/s400/AIDS-pic3.bmp" width="289" border="0" /></a></p><p align="left"><a href="http://www.moebiusmodels.com/images/podBox.jpg"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://www.moebiusmodels.com/images/podBox.jpg</span></a> <a href="http://www.teenaids.org/Portals/0/images/whatIsAIDS-pic3.gif"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://www.teenaids.org/Portals/0/images/whatIsAIDS-pic3.gif</span></a><span style="font-size:78%;"> </span></p><span style="font-size:78%;"><p align="left"></span>and travel around until they find a landing place. Most viruses will latch on to a host cell. Viruses do not need DNA to replicate, some have only RNA or enzymes that help with reproduction. They will use the host cell and the virus nucleic acid then will enter the cell.<br />“New” viruses may be viruses that jumped species or were transported from a different geographical area. Some viruses are known to change their appearance and then our immune systems no longer recognize them as pathogens.<br />Prions are malformed proteins. These can be injested from eating infected nerve tissues and will cause the host to develop more misshapened proteins that can no longer perform their function.<br /><br /><strong>7.2 The Lymphatic System</strong><br /><br />The lymphatic system has four main functions: to collect and return extra interstitial fluid, hormones, enzymes and wastes to the bloodstream, protect the body against disease, produce lymphocytes, and absorb fats from the small intestines.<br />Lymphatic vessels are the network through which lymph travels. This fluid is normally clear, but will become cloudy after a fatty meal. The lymphatic system is a web of one-way vessels that begin with lymphatic capillaries in the surrounding tissues. These merge to form larger vessels which culminate in to ducts: the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. The right duct returns lymph to the right subclavian vein and the thoracic duct returns lymph to the left subclavian vein. The movement of lymph depends upon muscular contraction and the valves prevent lymph from flowing backwards.<br />Primary lymphatic organs are red bone marrow and the thymus gland. The bone marrow produces erythrocytes (red blood cells), monocytes, granulocytes and platelets. Lymphocytes are also produced in the bone marrow, but some of them will mature in the thymus. The thymus produces hormones that mature Tcells. Without these mature cells, our immune response is poor or absent.<br />The secondary lymphatic organs are the spleen – filters the blood, lymph nodes – filter lymph (these may swell in the presence of pathogens, lymphatic nodules – larger concentrations of lymph, peyer’s patches – located along the intestines and appendix- generate an immune response to pathogens in the GI tract. </p><p align="left"><br /><strong>7.3 Nonspecific Defenses</strong><br /><strong>First Line of Defense </strong></p><p align="left"><strong><br /></strong>Barriers provide the first defense against all pathogens.<br />Skin and mucous membranes line all surfaces exposed to external pathogens and provide a physical barrier.<br />Chemical barriers are present in our perspiration, tears, saliva, and oil secretions from sebaceous glands. These are anti-bacterial. The pH of other areas will inhibit or kill other pathogens, for example stomach acid and, interestingly, the mucosa of the vagina.<br />We also have a microbial defenses present in our mouths and intestines. Normal, “healthy” flora in the intestines will consume waste products that pathogens need to survive before they can grow and multiply. Some courses of antibiotics will kill pathogens and healthy flora, too. This is why acidophilus is frequently recommended as a supplement to restore normal flora while on antibiotic therapy.</p><br /><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Flora in the intestine</span></p><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVdHo_K-0dhoX3blALsSZsQXJ6ufZUAhTbB3M0FWXlmiRPQqAOBBB_7kS9RUPpPdsVE5U7Pbw5pGwJMXYiFXO7hfjFW3R3bR7NxCW_RzH63O6XXWGSyfFdQo7kaQmP9cqvy1Js2ZQYsMsE/s1600-h/gut+flora.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176308187225132258" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVdHo_K-0dhoX3blALsSZsQXJ6ufZUAhTbB3M0FWXlmiRPQqAOBBB_7kS9RUPpPdsVE5U7Pbw5pGwJMXYiFXO7hfjFW3R3bR7NxCW_RzH63O6XXWGSyfFdQo7kaQmP9cqvy1Js2ZQYsMsE/s400/gut+flora.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="left"></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.scq.ubc.ca/wp">http://www.scq.ubc.ca/wp</a>- content/uploads/2006/08/normalfloracolon.jpg</span><br /><strong></strong></p><p align="left"><strong>Second Line of Defense</strong><br />The inflammatory response is initiated after the initial barriers have been breached. Damaged tissues release histamines which dilate the capillaries. This allows for easier transfer of fluids and proteins (blood clotting factors) into the damaged region. The dilated capillaries cause flushing and the extra fluids cause swelling and pain as the pressure increases on nerve endings. These events send signals for white blood cells (WBCs) to come to the area. Neutrophils are first responders and they will devour waste and bacteria. Pus develops when these die off in large numbers. Usually, the inflammatory response is minimal and healing begins when nearby cells secrete growth factors to stimulate new vessels and cells to grow.<br />If more defenses are needed, the neutrophils will secrete cytokines which bring more WBC’s including monocytes which become macrophages (phagocytic cells). If the irritation or infection cannot be overcome, chronic inflammation will occur causing damage to surrounding tissues.<br />Blood plasma proteins complement the immune response. These proteins bind to the surfaces of pathogens. Some will then be marked for phagocytization, others will burst from holes they produce in the cell membrane. Interferons are proteins produced by cells infected with viruses. These will signal other healthy cells to prepare their defense for possible viral attack.<br /><br /><strong>7.4 Specific Defenses</strong> </p><p align="left"><br />When the non-specific defenses are inneffective, B & T-cells will be activated to respond to specific antigens. Antigens are substances that are recognized as foreign. A healthy immune system will be able to differentiate between substances that are foreign and ones that originate within our own bodies. Cancer cells from our own bodies are considered foreign because they are malformed cells. Antibody-Mediated Immunity<br />“<span style="color:#000000;">T cells and B-cells are the major cellular components of the </span><a title="Adaptive immune response" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_immune_response"><span style="color:#000000;">adaptive immune response</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">. T cells are involved in </span><a title="Cell-mediated immunity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity"><span style="color:#000000;">cell-mediated immunity</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> whereas B cells are primarily responsible for </span><a title="Humoral immunity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humoral_immunity"><span style="color:#000000;">humoral immunity</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> (relating to </span><a title="Antibody" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody"><span style="color:#000000;">antibodies</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">). The function of T cells and B cells is to recognize specific “non-self” antigens, during a process known as </span><a title="Antigen presentation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen_presentation"><span style="color:#000000;">antigen presentation</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">. Once they have identified an invader, the cells generate specific responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific </span><a title="Pathogen" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen"><span style="color:#000000;">pathogens</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> or pathogen infected cells. B cells respond to pathogens by producing large quantities of </span><a title="Antibody" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody"><span style="color:#000000;">antibodies</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> which then neutralize foreign objects like </span><a title="Bacteria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"><span style="color:#000000;">bacteria</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and viruses. In response to pathogens some T cells, called </span><a title="Helper T cell" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helper_T_cell"><span style="color:#000000;">helper T cells</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> produce </span><a title="Cytokine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine"><span style="color:#000000;">cytokines</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> that direct the immune response whilst other T cells, called </span><a title="Cytotoxic T cell" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell"><span style="color:#000000;">cytotoxic T cells</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, produce toxic </span><a title="Granules" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granules"><span style="color:#000000;">granules</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> that induce the death of pathogen infected cells. Following activation, B cells and T cells leave a lasting legacy of the antigens they have encountered, in the form of memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells will “remember” each specific pathogen encountered, and are able to mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again.”</span> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocyte"><span style="font-size:78%;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocyte</span></a> </p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Specific Immune Response<br /></span><br /><br /></p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtSsCiJAqArTdO1sQLog2XOP7e_FKNYRdL-RDHb1DKIcx8L65LKznPU_INTzFhYRGqbyojN-F7Ppl1sUVkfEloezLwvUkG-T6jDvh99dNz90Cq3aGhb3oN5Lkug1TKKz67ePbeDvUf819S/s1600-h/antibody.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176308187225132274" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtSsCiJAqArTdO1sQLog2XOP7e_FKNYRdL-RDHb1DKIcx8L65LKznPU_INTzFhYRGqbyojN-F7Ppl1sUVkfEloezLwvUkG-T6jDvh99dNz90Cq3aGhb3oN5Lkug1TKKz67ePbeDvUf819S/s400/antibody.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/264.jpg">http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/264.jpg</a></span> </p><p align="center">The basic structure of a single antibody is the shape of “Y”. Antigen binding sites fit only the specific antigen for which it was produced. There are larger antibodies, some paired together called a dimer, and other larger antibodies in clusters of five Y-shaped bodies, called pentamers. </p><p align="center"><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">There are five classes of antibodies:</span> </p><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKFemFHMYJ2W0WJcuVseGELUYJxnLumwgBlfmSmMuTKv0SekA0Z8CW9ixQe0OFeg5aCoSb9xWZWuntr9o40xIncY05yTac8RjdmEE9Oe0jdXlFnQcD6dCZvYhF5XNVi_NcQiS3vc1Q1ciQ/s1600-h/AntiBtypes.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176311623198969090" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKFemFHMYJ2W0WJcuVseGELUYJxnLumwgBlfmSmMuTKv0SekA0Z8CW9ixQe0OFeg5aCoSb9xWZWuntr9o40xIncY05yTac8RjdmEE9Oe0jdXlFnQcD6dCZvYhF5XNVi_NcQiS3vc1Q1ciQ/s400/AntiBtypes.bmp" border="0" /></a></p><br /><br /><p align="left"><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/AntiBtypes.gif">http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/AntiBtypes.gif</a><br />IgG- most common; gives newborns active immunity from mother<br />IgM- largest antibody and first formed by an infant. Will clump antigens and activate complement immune response.<br />IgA- found in epithelial secretions (saliva, milk and digestive and respiratory tracts)<br />IgD- on surface of immature B cells.<br />IgE- antigen receptor used in allergic reactions and also protects against parasitic worms.<br />T Cell and Cell-Mediated Immunity<br />T Cells need help recognizing an antigen and are able to do so after a macrophage phagocytizes a pathogen. After the virus or bacteria has been digested, a piece of the pathogen is presented externally in a groove of an MHC protein. Human leukocyte antigens are over 50 different proteins that are found on the surface of all our body cells. These vary with each individual. When transplantation is being considered, these proteins can cause rejection if only a few match. The macrophages will recognize the transplant as foreign. This is why the donor and recipient need to be “histo-compatable”.<br />T Cells have two types of receptors. HLA I will form more cytotoxic cells and the HLA II will form helper T cells. Cytotoxic T Cells will form a hole in an infected or cancer cell and deliver granzymes into the newly formed pore. These cause the cell to die. They are cell mediated immunity. Helper T Cells secrete cytokines that signal other types of immune responses. B Cells cannot be activated without their help. The HIV virus that causes AIDS inactivates the helper T cells and others, disabling the immune system.<br />When the T cells clone, they also produce memory T Cells. These remain in the body and will activate a quick immune response when needed. </p><p align="left"><strong>7.5 Acquired Imunity</strong><br />Active immunity is acquired after a person has been exposed to a pathogen. This can occur naturally or through immunizations. Vaccinations are sometimes the pathogens administered via different routes (orally, nasally, Intramuscularly, subcuteneously, etc.). More recently, methods were developed to introduce the products of pathogens (proteins) to elicit an immune response. A blood test call a titer can be performed to see if an effective antibody level was attained.<br />Passive immunity is temporary. The antibodies are injected to provide immunity and will soon disappear. They will not be replicated in their new host. Gamma globulin will provide defense against hepatitis immediately following exposure. </p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnbUSE7sIumzol-4KrATFPFQnaWVivarTneLVxKl3mk8q-qRNAGHLTBMnQ5AqZzgW6jbt5BlehXqyiBTSXfrNgh7o8_FI1TBBG1mM80eS6qpd_2LR9xoSqxZLsBBLWzMSJESpvhVY2uOiK/s1600-h/immunity.bmp"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176311627493936402" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnbUSE7sIumzol-4KrATFPFQnaWVivarTneLVxKl3mk8q-qRNAGHLTBMnQ5AqZzgW6jbt5BlehXqyiBTSXfrNgh7o8_FI1TBBG1mM80eS6qpd_2LR9xoSqxZLsBBLWzMSJESpvhVY2uOiK/s400/immunity.bmp" border="0" /></a></p><br /><p align="left"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#3333ff;"><a href="http://www.troy.k12.ny.us/thsbiology/images/medcn007.gif">http://www.troy.k12.ny.us/thsbiology/images/medcn007.gif</a> </span></p><p align="left">Monoclonal antibodies are produced from plasma cells exposed to a specific antigen and then fused to a cancer cell. This results in a cell that will replicate indefinitely. These cells can be used to target specific antigens to include cancers.<br />Cytokines are produced by cells in the immune system to signal an immune response. It is thought that these may help stimulate a response in cancer and AIDS patients.<br /><br /><strong>7.6 Hypersensitivity Reactions</strong><br /><br />When the immune system overreacts to a pathogen, harmful consequences can occur. An allergic reaction is really a hypersensitivity reaction. Antigens are referred to as allergens. Allergic reactions include watery eyes, runny nose or wheezing. If the allergen is food, vomiting or diarrhea may result. Anaphylactic shock occurs when the allergen enters the blood stream. The immune response includes a sudden drop in blood pressure because of vasodilatation. IgE is 10 times more concentrated in people with allergies than those without. Some allergic responses are delayed and will manifest days after exposure. A positive TB test is a good example of this.<br />Tissue rejection is a type of immune response. The body recognizes that transplanted tissue is not “self” and will initiate an immune response. Careful selection of donors will lessen these responses, using only organs that are histo-compatible and the use of immunosuppressive drugs.<br />These drugs inhibit the production of cytokines. Xenotransplantation (using animals’ organs in humans) is a promising procedure with the advent of genetic engineering. Lab-grown organs are also a new possibility.<br /></p><span style="font-size:85%;color:#ff6600;"></span><br /><br /><br /><p align="left"><span style="font-size:85%;color:#ff6600;">T</span><span style="font-size:85%;color:#ff6600;">he successful cloning of mini pigs in China that have organs similar in size to those of human beings may bring the possibility of transplanting pig organs into people closer.</span></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz8bnvYl1oTAyZIjUEYx3QYsSvcgvRQXrdO9Kvrbt3eJHvqo1L9PyrJ7329JGbb9gPIF13qv5UDjI-MEX23suds4jyj9QneccTpDqv70F2NTPqqtg4LoSuxvxai9ojft6nibdAFWRGdECE/s1600-h/cloned_pig_3821.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5176311627493936418" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz8bnvYl1oTAyZIjUEYx3QYsSvcgvRQXrdO9Kvrbt3eJHvqo1L9PyrJ7329JGbb9gPIF13qv5UDjI-MEX23suds4jyj9QneccTpDqv70F2NTPqqtg4LoSuxvxai9ojft6nibdAFWRGdECE/s400/cloned_pig_3821.jpg" border="0" /></a></span></p><p align="center"><a href="http://inlife.blog.dada.net/tag/mini-pigs" target="_top">inlife.blog.dada.net/tag/mini-pigs</a> </p><br /><br /><p><br />Autoimmune diseases occur when antibodies attack our own body’s cells. This might occur after recovering from an infection. Rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis and lupus are all autoimmune diseases.<br />An immune deficiency is a deficient response to pathogens. AIDS is an example. Some immune deficiencies are inherited. Gene therapy has had successes in treating some types of immune disorders. </p><br /><p>Addendum on AIDS<br /><br />AIDS was identified in 1981 and HIV as the precursor in 1983. In the 20 years since it has been identified 60 million people have been infected. One-third of those living with HIV today are between 15-24 years old.<br />The HIV virus causes AIDS by attacking the helper T cells. The helper T cells signal other cells to the presence of pathogens. When there are not enough helper T cells for this part of the immune response, the immune response becomes deficient, hence the name Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Progressing from HIV infection to AIDS can take 2 weeks to 20 years depending on the strength of the individual’s immune response.<br />The best treatment is prevention. Blood transfusions are screened to prevent infecting recipients. Decreased incidence has been reported among IV drug users. Risky sexual behaviors are still noted primarily among young people (after all, they perceive themselves as not vulnerable). Barriers to the virus are as simple as intact skin and condoms.<br />Current treatment consists of HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy). It is a medical “cocktail” of 2-3 different antiretrovirals. Only about 50% of the infected population respond to HAART. Some of the failures to respond to treatment is due to the difficult drug regimen, price, availability, etc. Of those who do respond well, their lifespan may increase 4-12 years. </p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">Viral RNA is located in base of cone-shaped </span></p><p align="center"><span style="color:#ff6600;">HIV infected cores</span></p><p align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo_aOL4DitvxbZvNrkLwTPcZjWinD1GVy-3bZl5X1GFl7M1SY1tLCqWh93Yrn51Dygq_aARhgfG1vcva2HAmr6eQNYigTjFD-8B6p905JsDlKv43mER1jzou8OhDcgGuSvaxwF4P4L5Rwc/s1600-h/aids+virus.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5178200382312025410" style="CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo_aOL4DitvxbZvNrkLwTPcZjWinD1GVy-3bZl5X1GFl7M1SY1tLCqWh93Yrn51Dygq_aARhgfG1vcva2HAmr6eQNYigTjFD-8B6p905JsDlKv43mER1jzou8OhDcgGuSvaxwF4P4L5Rwc/s400/aids+virus.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center"><a href="http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/cdc/948.html" target="_top">www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/cdc/9</a><a href="http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/cdc/948.html" target="_top">48.html</a></p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-33686675595422715702008-02-21T19:05:00.000-08:002008-02-21T19:40:08.626-08:00<span style="color:#ff6600;"><strong>REGARDING MY OWN PERFORMANCE</strong><br />1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? </span><br /><ul><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">As overwhelming as it was, I would have to say that the compendium of Chpt 1-4 was the most complete assignment I had done. </span></span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">I enjoyed researching further to complete my understanding and locating pictures that were informative and entertaining. Further comments on that below. . . </span></span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">As overwhelming as the amount of information we had to assimilate was, I will admit that is was very interesting to see how things work on the cellular level.<br /></span>2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?</span></li><li><span style="color:#000000;">I could have submitted a comendium for Unit II.</span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Perhaps some pictures and works cited for the eithical issue essay.<br /></span>3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? </span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Since my work was incomplete and I haven't done much schooling this last 30 years, I am clueless.</span><br />4. How could I perform better in the next unit?</span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Finish my work.</span><br /><br /><br />REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")<br />At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? </span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">I enjoyed writing the ethical essay. Usually both sides of an issue have valid concerns and we would be wise to use informed, unbiased restraint in progressing in many of these fields.</span><br /><br />At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? </span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">I do not enjoy the compendiums. I feel it would be more efficeint to study and review than ponder which items need to be included.<br /></span><br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? </span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Mr. Frolich has been affirming and positive in his feedback. I was considering dropping simply because I didn't finish all the work for Unit I, but will hang in there.</span><br /><br />What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? </span></li><li><span style="color:#ff6600;"><span style="color:#000000;">Can't think of anything.</span><br /><br />What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) </span></li><li><span style="color:#000000;">How laborious and time-consuming it was. Albeit, it was also very interesting.</span></li></ul>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-35058524401795909682008-02-17T22:20:00.000-08:002008-02-17T23:54:11.378-08:00Genetics Lab<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglvsEh2smd8JN0lcWF0herqA7uiI0Nn3yAuPX_QiWkJUFe2EaHltc3N88rY2SqdqlSkKzJ8J7NgHA3xEj97U5xZhl71u-G-6GBy8aX7nh9cK1rTkgyYekLkyan8XC22v3soA-ABkr2ZMs_/s1600-h/gene.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5168224929946451666" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglvsEh2smd8JN0lcWF0herqA7uiI0Nn3yAuPX_QiWkJUFe2EaHltc3N88rY2SqdqlSkKzJ8J7NgHA3xEj97U5xZhl71u-G-6GBy8aX7nh9cK1rTkgyYekLkyan8XC22v3soA-ABkr2ZMs_/s400/gene.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div>Genetics<br /><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><br /></div><div>My children look nothing alike. They have the same parents. The same genetic material went into each one. Genetics explains how traits like these and ones you can't see are passed or not passed from one generation to the next. </div><div align="right"><span style="color:#3366ff;">publications.nigms.nih.gov/.../ch1_dnagenes.jpg</span><br /><br /></div><div></div><div><br /><br /></div><div><span style="color:#ff6600;">Dragon Genetics</span></div><div><br /><br /></div><div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5168205757212442290" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQ4wHSlFbeZ6Bqv0_HbVDcVMNSynhirlCCDjESKDnsNP9-QOqfLckU7CPoSjQzPj9N60r1bCN1XuKXYzmEWspaQwVZwyyJE1Q25uMdUyXzeQGCA-wcTPjacqrsrZUUZMEyeg8iycm_5m7_/s400/dragon+phenotype.jpg" border="0" /></div></div><br /><br /><p>In this lab, different chromosomal allels are selected in the make-up of the second dragon until the identical twin of the first is acheived. By <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXCHeGoG5HhndkA2dgLiB_-2sGTFgBfSQcNtjlqOb4YMBhIzRSrtPeYU21BYKStrFzZN6X289jNfPF-i-VrKuMEFaUE3nVu2q7gL2LbkFDFnp2y-SFjV3fR5pIw4xRQ-cPGHI_Sqi3dLyh/s1600-h/food+chain.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5168209820251504322" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXCHeGoG5HhndkA2dgLiB_-2sGTFgBfSQcNtjlqOb4YMBhIzRSrtPeYU21BYKStrFzZN6X289jNfPF-i-VrKuMEFaUE3nVu2q7gL2LbkFDFnp2y-SFjV3fR5pIw4xRQ-cPGHI_Sqi3dLyh/s400/food+chain.jpg" border="0" /></a>manipulating which recessive and dominate alleles are present in the bottom dragon, we are able to bestow horns or remove them, give him wings or ground him with or without a leg to stand on . . . It's easy to understand how certain traits are more common than others when you consider that legless and wingless dragons can't run away from hungry pedators. The stronger, faster, and more attractive dragons would have more opportunity to reproduce. </p><br /><p><a href="http://www.intarttiles.com/">http://www.intarttiles.com/</a></p><br /><br /><p>Every cell in our body has the complete gene sequence present in our DNA. When our cells prepare for sexual reproduction, they go through a special process of reduction division called Meiosis. This reduces the number of chomosomes by half in the daughter cells. When these cells develop into an egg and are fertilized by a sperm (carrying the other half of needed chromosomes) a zygote containing 23 pairs of or 46 chromosomes is created. This brings diversity to the table - we are not carbon copies of our parents (although, as I age, I do see more of my mother in the mirror - another story . . .)</p><br /><p><span style="color:#ff6600;">Punnett Square - Scenario 5</span></p><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5168205752917474978" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoBMxdU9rF4rDxIqxwcf2FS1lVwm0pt67_tz0XRCipHQLgn2mXjeP1Zgb9mGmLOc2TlvdPqAWIxmwKBlNTchNU9aQqFbwUT3hyNSGf5j7bjci7ZbwzvALeij7dSbQ8Sjws8U7ylEv0CKja/s400/flies.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><p>The Punnett Square (monohybrid cross) is a tool by which we can ascertain the odds of passing along traits or disorders. The mother and father's genotypes are placed along the top and side of the square with the cross-refrenced results posted in the squares inside the box. From that, we are able to tell what the odds are that the trait in question will be passed on to the child. These odds do not change with multiple births. When reviewing a single trait, the odds are broken down no farther than 1/4. When two traits are being considered, a dihybrid cross produces 4 possible phenotypes with a probability as low as 1/16.</p><br /><p><strong>Terms to know:</strong></p><br /><ul><br /><li><strong>Genotype</strong> - the method of labeling what genes are present in each individual. Some are dominate, some recessive. These determine what attributes you will inherit from your parents. The genotype is what we manipulated to change the features of the dragon.</li><br /><li><strong>Phenotype </strong>- the physical expression of the genotype. As an example, the wings on some of the fruit flies were short as a result of the genotype they inherited. Your eyes are a certain color because of the genotype allel you inherited.</li><br /><li><strong>Allel </strong>- the same location of a gene that addresses the same trait on a pair homologuous chromosomes that can vary in attributes.</li><br /><li><strong>Cross</strong> - a tool used to predict probability of traits.</li><br /><li><strong>Dominant</strong> - used to describe the gene that will express itself when present in a genotype.</li><br /><li><strong>Recessive </strong>- a gene when paired with a dominant won't be evident in the phenotype, but can still carry traits to another when paired with another recessive.</li></ul><br /><p>Now we know why so many differences are evident in my kids. </p><br /><p>The science of genomics and genetic engineering is a burgeoning field. Understanding how the replication of everything works has huge, unimaginable potential for great advances in medicine and agriculture or any field involving living things; however, just as huge is the unkown factor pertaining to how these changes will affect homeostasis on our planet as we know it.</p><br /><p></p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-63227562649721849342008-02-15T16:44:00.000-08:002008-02-16T12:52:16.742-08:00Unit I Lab Project - Build a Cell<div><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><div>Prior to demonstrating mitosis and revealing the cell model, I will attempt to demonstrate the transcription of DNA to mRNA and mRNA translation to proteins.</div><br /><br /><div><br />The DNA strand opens.</div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167382798528855298" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcYt8K8mgOeaQ2mcZSEfUsVgqhGN7R8XA7nb9wyso43_ByPfK6lXfCDkAY8dKlqYozOkHon3rZXGlVUJqUrcuxmWbYK1Ro9yRMiaBwIutmMLqPeiPfGUJPOZMbfk6vUXzRZaOlHp8amj16/s320/Picture+001.jpg" border="0" /></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div align="center">The RNA polymerase to transcribes a single strand of DNA into a single stranded RNA polymer called messenger RNA (mRNA).<br /></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167382802823822610" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKmYNuwzs4Yvdb2hIR6GjSwzb5bB1bTYLVhUK5lvb-nR8pHjK3P4yEv-oH9B3u35tilJHqE9I9VQgxgFeYMkxKCJhOxdJy19CFeyBuFNQ_D7I6FcIr4jxHBioaVuX0tmayK0Vu9KBaTJuN/s320/Picture+002.jpg" border="0" /></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div align="center"><br />After the RNA is completed (now mRNA), the DNA strand closes.<br /></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><div></div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167382807118789922" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqyVA_5NU51cJb-wUyCdj4nr1a-3ppYzlW52D__xFIocLRG8vwz4h3BbEXeJGSU289fRPdWFznZZ-vfRYcatGVugEeqiFKxmD-ygRiulxlt3ORqLzBBaLGz5ZuROLMBULXAhP1q6sovmqt/s320/Picture+003.jpg" border="0" /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center">A small ribosomal subunit attaches to the RNA. Note the codons on the RNA (zipper teeth). These dictate which amino acids will be aligned for the protien to be processed.</p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167382815708724530" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ppWXB3F8TmAtxJDYtOAHwwg5qpAwlXgBXKfTZShRcf3PqTBnye46UV0gorhiHnesSSamML2PxVu4wxKsWvjzeSeGhC7HqdP4B0_Xq1oRMKxZyWagsGVlnFViL_5u5pr6y2ElEVzfinSQ/s320/Picture+004.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center">tRNA has specific anticodons that will align only with a certain combination of codons in the RNA strand. These will attach to the mRNA in the order dictated. Attached to the end of the tRNA is an amino acid (pearl). A large ribosome will then cover this activity, and will not be demonstrated.</p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167382824298659138" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUtOpza7G8ROtTg5HRfkH0KZsi0qxWTqg96U4U5hSZcVG5e0ow4rKghfP6pxNmdSzQZp-jlFjBlFRB91X596pqRaIPLI-MntmjzA7qQH4cgc0nskCX79umqo7AlATJJkQuFKpfkE_Tt9Tx/s320/Picture+006.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center">A second tRNA will attach to the mRNA with its accompanying amino acid. The previous amino acid will attach to the new arrival. <img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167421719522491730" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp-NBpJydYEY5-NhcCq_47fWL01tfIQ0EBxbZ2ZOmYCJmfUI-SpLafZc3SBB-SiAT7mnHdyLLwG369vLkwzDDkfZG5OGwLnevMpoKMCsgUwgaEzIiIvlIiEMrq-Sik9cC3tyux29ZQdOT4/s320/Picture+008.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center">The first tRNA will then dislodge from the mRNA leaving its amino acid attached to the second one.</p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167421732407393634" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdTtzRHbmAsNzUqv3Thc-k0d28tSJYM3jM9NI5aKimrjsgOzCfEvoL1IpxLLEXhuLn-8WnO9jnrfSPJHFj00RqGHKQ5Zb8CwSHffq4LlU1BW3x26V9GpQarVQL6L3AhhL_WANZa7n4mKkO/s320/Picture+009.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p>The process keeps repeating itself. . . </p><br /><br /><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167421736702360946" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvUvGBsXpIjwBEFze-27R7VrTvg36sbRI8HTJAOXKdaYE6vW2twh1MnpjAZ403HA-ZAIPZcBzAeUFOKO6ReyXZZIcj58t2yK5SUyQWKKLse9noHB4XJLZ1Zeg_yviPDXUd-YVEcUxeaDuD/s320/Picture+010.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><p>Each tRNA will leave after the arrival of the next one, forming a chain</p><p align="center">of amino acids.</p><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167421740997328258" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRRsvUcM2BA0VqSo-NG0PEzl-9p8yDahmWu3fBUWKuoffUnh2V3Pnslav0XvZQF8RGHSMRtCmyELnGWg5Dg6M6qX21arfCa5ar1ZcnXEnWAuf3WxWX4SJtP9VUixF3lbfkBNs4vpYsIMns/s320/Picture+011.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167425091071819170" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj06BLChidyF0tDujmU1Tiizi_Pt14usi7OxvZr6aL2PUEYDLC3sNQ8q4YpBC8Xa1plO4TgbXJhkDVhFJQ7ibnGgzqLCkOYgvZMWrtpHbax0sRGvyhc9t0gZ8WZrw2tjZ_zcC1N2apu6DNu/s320/Picture+013.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><p>This is the completed protein.</p><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167425099661753778" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikk6-oy-Lk1dv31w9h9wRNwImHSxDTX_uCN-sJD8_XTaQY2zHXjrUinx7mtcGNYflE8Ewz5b4mr97PWgv8QBU7QxP2v9fxhnEIlFbSz87Qkyx_f08G4EHgd9gk7RQz6KU0jp3Zl9ydlhrE/s320/Picture+014.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><div></div><p>Now for mitosis. Mitosis is the process through which cells replicate.</p><p>During the interphase (beginning of the cell cycle) chromosomes will replicate and form chromatids to prepare for cell division. Chromatids are DNA that has been reproduced and has both strands joined together in the center. Looks like a floating X. Now for the picture that's worth a thousand words. . .</p><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167464987023031746" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9SF3taWmPp8DrEfhCRmzBaem7qbOnt5UpDfVSdZlkLmciXaEhkkP-eDJxuOS0RgOVaQiZGsi7H0l6MbayfCVs2VEwUk_EZ0Wv8lR0-L1rZYrPx2Q7pm2fJYyI_fN0qyTPgVHZ4tkS-J8Y/s320/Family+001.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167468762299284946" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6hOt93bSLxfV88h7xCTradiNioWSp33tXCvQdvrmeSUBJ1jdmgKFmqLIuo_HEkIy0dlJ6iYuOgJ-o-zPmnJJ5dkqJzOTcMDvKREvg7zrtTRltus4Ckji0wGWzf3Js6RUt5BA3Gvo79nbM/s400/poster+001.jpg" border="0" /></p><p></p><br /><p></p><br /><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167468770889219554" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQur_hMbuqf02nFJoA-bK_bjTDHXtBTEXU0eLDsyNj5wZbUju5VRALntwHTIP7Ok1H5XDlU5K_Ygn_jqM0bsvBMO262dwyDFo4XVfNU0wItdYKQoif8UHQNXidIUn7KRE9AISvhGd9qzYw/s400/poster+002.jpg" border="0" /></p><p></p><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167468775184186866" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi43qgzz96Rq22QC8hnshsKWfihDiXMRtGWlrNmA5lRnNKRy_hzv07JOAQKDMlcN0TooQo6kOwPCGohyphenhyphenh9RCpSUq18Xc9SiDBLfakm_uNDhVbHnAAq9V69aAgPgvXZI2bUoxtwBV55X3psU/s400/poster+003.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167468779479154178" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzjo2wvUBztL6wrsP1IWkRmXf0Bh8NpZQ7otLAxvyZytgIFgtwVpOLqi_5yxhwREehSnvFsds-vQjMaHm216CRtDREGfYSbvVjIz763Q5lEw6HpjU6sea_u04TTd3mV8kaaVELg0QmvhrX/s400/poster+004.jpg" border="0" /></p><br /><p>Not enough detail in this cell, you say? Well, you haven't seen it all.</p><br /><br /><p>The family has been eagerly awaiting the creation of the jello cell. This cell will represent the following:</p><br /><p><strong><span style="color:#6666cc;">Cell Membrane:</span></strong> Glass bowl</p><p>This protects the cell. Regulates the transport of matter in an out of the cell. Regulates receptivity and signalling through receptors in membrane. Identifies the cell to others. Cytoskeletal filaments anchor to membrane wall and helps to hold it's shape. </p><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"><strong>Nucleus with nuclear membrane:</strong></span> Boiled egg</p><p>The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent organelle in the cell. (<a href="http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa032300a.htm">http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa032300a.htm</a>)</p><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"><strong>Endoplastic Reticulum (ER):</strong></span> </p><p> <span style="color:#6666cc;"> Rough with ribosomes:</span> striated fruit tape</p><p> Rough (ER) is covered with ribosomes and produces proteins.</p><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167662817511652962" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXncDUJwck60PczZi5314WtpzfdqGur-pKk_fZupMEIOU4GcCjyIWAs_7nqzndwDymjAeWdQmPFNPPHzBkNz_5AKi7jzsJtyrm7tHRiCL5lHnW_vKhd4wYbJ643vSwC8nMyhjcrvcaoyEJ/s400/Cell+001.jpg" border="0" /><br /><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"> Smooth without ribosomes:</span> blue fruit tape</p><p> Smooth ER transports material through the cell. It has </p><p> enzymes that help produce and digest lipids and proteins. </p><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"><strong>Golgi apparatus:</strong></span> licorice</p><p>It produces vesicles which contain proteins and carbohydrates for export from the cell.</p><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"><strong>Mitochondria:</strong></span> Pecan</p><p>It has a double membrane. Converts glucose into ATP, the usuable energy for the cell. </p><p><span style="color:#6666cc;"><strong>Cilia or flagella:</strong></span> Sprouts glued to bowl</p><p>Small microtubules that form together to make "whips" that facilitate movement - either of the cell itself or of materials that need to be relocated.</p><p><strong><span style="color:#6666cc;">Protein:</span></strong> Jelly bellies (thanks to my husband for his selfless sacrifice) in cell wall.</p><p>Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane facilitate transport of substances in and out of the cell.</p><p><strong><span style="color:#6666cc;">Cytoskeleton:</span></strong> Alfalfa sprouts inside the cytoplasm</p><p>Microtubules and filaments that provide support and help organelles move around inside the cell.</p><p><strong><span style="color:#6666cc;">THE CELL!!</span></strong></p><p> </p><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167656237621755426" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFvOBsZvZPSaV_SUU4M6OglKR4rCHiKlde9dOHLEYj0MzysTJVGnoiSTguXXf3NGDRfJMX8gfLOerujhpxMbume24S4YqpYUWnRqnClt_XUq3ztDVnP7AN0UsYCPKNA9aLYYMvPoQ1ZOum/s400/Cell+007.jpg" border="0" /></p></div><br /><p> </p><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167656289161362994" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeZtoCFEcfgDsT6ytqQOQM1XKUnhGQnzlKWBKMDxY9gdhl3EYIX5J7fRTQ_1F_Ck8ldUzuPl749bOzDqkpna-gBd8TDf4icLISgVi9oio_iqqXbLXwRZhy4SF9xpt_obVgdhasyNuzT2m4/s400/Cell+006.jpg" border="0" /></p><p>Here's some of the basic building blocks. The kids are now happily sugared from the remnants of this lab and gratefully, they found an outside activity . . . needless to say, they didn't go for the eggs,nuts or sprouts.</p><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167656314931166786" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1OxnxIBVKjUFbkeGGHQvJLNftMfYGbfZjCp3ev6j9ATylPfpJI4VV6QBQinXYdjOKIGuQQKoiA5VYIxKpK6Z1q3gfxZFCvggehnkHGGnvCYEhse_QRCYYk9tZ5ffTjjJ5P4K5r02Kg7Tw/s400/Cell+009.jpg" border="0" /></p><p> DNA replication is explained on the following website. ht<a href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7158977581753243907&q=dna+replication&total=119&start=10&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=7">tp://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7158977581753243907&q=dna+replication&total=119&start=10&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=7</a></p><p>Hope you enjoyed this lab. I will say it's more interesting than typing a compendium.</p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5752748606646746634.post-62324957341014357362008-02-14T22:50:00.000-08:002008-02-14T23:04:50.643-08:00The Microscope<div align="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div><div align="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div><div align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">The Microscope<br /></span></strong><br /></div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096959865371794" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" height="5" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhH4B_1nGM1dsGH2FrmaF69Ab0550Q8a_C44huGBMOppHJ81-LwvbV7-_eDlVv_P6Us_9iWoIn5jmTcIEbN7vVl9u08Cjm3_ox9YZMyPsGbeqaMI8gGG1fga_kFBh5pd7NcwYSzylTX8KWb/s320/S_aureus.jpg" width="320" border="0" /><br /><br /><br />The invention of the microscope has opened up a world, perhaps more accurate, a universe smaller than we have yet to realize. It was crude in the beginning, a mere piece of round glass mounted in a metal plate capable of magnifying up to 275x. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek had no idea of the advancements to follow his invention in the 17th century.<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Example of Leeuwenhoek's microscope</span><br /><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096307030342754" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8FqE94E5jztJNbvWWEhhhkEN6dW_Xc6aeXAmhOwvDovh_2Vfl2lXrs_UNlw1ROJJxvD8_oIivNHzXCh1GCCIAMtEAg-iY9CarJFlD_IHf6aTr4hOcNeLVgJtg8rN_2mK3h3fP7XEqVQgM/s320/Leeuwenhoek.jpg" border="0" /><br /><a href="http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/whipple/explore/microscopes/adutchpioneer/johnmayall/" target="_top">http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/whipple/explore/microscopes/adutchpioneer/johnmayall/</a><br />Modifications to follow were multiple lenses, a light source and stage upon which to place specimens. Crude dials were improved to allow for fine focusing adjustments. Compound microscopes have the ability to magnify an object up to 2000x.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Picture of compound microscope</span> <img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096311325310066" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCjMXJP-UUlXqflcNYH890IUcaiJUC8gWy-BME7bdqKTOiZKlEHjZ41SnPTrq-fSRBm56FloNI_Kkr54MFp8lzBaj-Le3uU7JRevhq9L3sxaGgo9GQe6K3_J9YCQ8QQ0CdPZS7th5WTHk9/s320/light+micro.jpg" border="0" /><br /><a href="http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio111/Labmanual/01CELLS.htm" target="_top">http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio111/Labmanual/01CELLS.htm</a><br /><br /><br />To follow are images from the online lab simulating viewing through a compound microscope:<br /><br /><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_57e2KV2nOZs/R6C1bQp9V7I/AAAAAAAAAAY/GxAI4WJ4a7k/s1600-h/CG11C.png"></a> <span style="color:#ff6600;">Onion Root Tip<br /></span><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167098656377453762" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAXDSJVShqoBESvuZp4XBC5__Qi0ASRirKZiAsbz-56eVhmnaGaPhD24WqF0_TTGn1RecFOWvU19fiNwdds-Bg0PArCecOKwd0BqrF4WrIXy0mnhTyEPXWxuxvw6bi0IQcRccdcq_ZraTH/s320/CG11C.png" border="0" /><br /><br /><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_57e2KV2nOZs/R6C1bgp9V8I/AAAAAAAAAAg/iJTuPm2yuDc/s1600-h/CG11E.png"></a><span style="color:#ff6600;"> The Letter "e"</span><br /><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167098664967388370" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjR6PV_cWhtp0bdpJEgXcpigvHZ184a3NJsS0HBWrqaK-hsjh2PmsVjlpWPVe9dUdHM2kmQaydr44vM7cU9Zn3TYAybgtTACL8X7oaHgIhMUFR0DDoiax8dK7mL3lI50PvBVn4yjK26JOo5/s320/CG11E.png" border="0" /><br /><br /><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_57e2KV2nOZs/R6C1gQp9V9I/AAAAAAAAAAo/Frx_hioVYjg/s1600-h/CG120.png"></a><span style="color:#ff6600;"> Cheek Smear</span><br /><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167098677852290274" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidWt62pD462XhMYKpJ15pvdM7vi6ZzpYK2Zw067SI0KxhovWij61LlG8SH2887JcdhVPzfLwg4uw-viVulkw2cVFIdsPHQlTQ2Nz5iVGo8fpkTAXiS4mY1-SRe0MAblUH0nW65X2JxkIDV/s320/CG120.png" border="0" /><br /><br /><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_57e2KV2nOZs/R6C1ggp9V-I/AAAAAAAAAAw/zpGHyrCUuCQ/s1600-h/CG122.png"></a><span style="color:#ff6600;"> Bacterial Capsule</span><br /><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167098677852290290" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgkGx2n4aFB-n_yH_ORhGsKoi7fIbXnv3UCVPU6LM3sHrnohasISH_1cveWihcYXhqrsnxMjANeO5ebeAx9rf_jlHidw8jJj7b4yqNmz-c0TNerTBIpd7OzDsZNUR2pNXlkGRFAgfS_voP/s320/CG122.png" border="0" /><br /><br />A microscope works by placing an object on the stage which is illuminated from below. Adjustment knobs are utilized to position the object over the light source. Course and fine adjustments are then made to bring the object into focus which is viewed through the eyepiece.<br />The contribution that the microscope has made to science is significant. Amongst the optical microscopes, different types of light are utilized to better image certain tissues.<br />Electron microscopes generate magnetic fields in a vacuum which are then transmitted to a veiwing screen. This allows for much greater magnification, allowing us to see the fine details and structures inside organic cells.<br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"> Photo of electron microscope</span><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096302735375442" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6g4DXgo7dh_8wx749H1vjXGWQn7pNd2q8xuhiy9sKXWyT82iJaYNZqRmEv7H9O7FqCLXhWFQ8Yf7R_1XIGO39EZ-EA7GOJJx0NKgGNSGsM9ULQPKUc0fJw9ZzZUE_6msw9FJ4MkkAo-zg/s320/electron.jpg" border="0" /> <a href="http://www.astbury.leeds.ac.uk/facil/ElectronMicro/emsuite.htm" target="_top">http://www.astbury.leeds.ac.uk/facil/ElectronMicro/emsuite.htm</a><br /><br /><strong>Some electron photos:</strong><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"> Staphylococci Bacteria</span><br /><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096968455306418" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKtWN_CHQb2RMt6Gbd47yJt_Vve4F-kpXkpADY2kcU0tDuuVvB65eyKoKF5kszjfREmAvA0KS9kfQlTKbXeOQM0l-dfvBsUzcOZydNxANB5dfA4RmgKfD8PKzPUq7mbFS7JppiZsgcm-tF/s320/S_aureus.jpg" border="0" /><br />t<a href="http://www.cfkeep.org/html/stitch.php?" target="_top">extbookofbacteriology.net/S.aureus.jpeg</a><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;"> Would you believe snowflakes?</span><br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096959865371810" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJmD4phvGaeH5SbxWYrSd87iKwmlVuAqMCpbqKREiPGeQBFA91h_PTnTvWW7FQb6bWJ8-qIbPEtM7dJ_IE6lsJcyOpoLfbpkzDmgKnf9k98SJF97WzaOp6RaoIpD6YT0RN6EG9N5BH4Iit/s320/snowflake-1.jpg" border="0" /> <p align="center"><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/1223blacksoot.html">http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/1223blacksoot.html</a><br /><br /><br />Credit: USDA Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in the Electron Microscopy Unit, Bld. 177-B, Beltsville Maryland 20705<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6600;">Electron micrographs of frontal cortex neurons from control and PCP-treated organotypic cultures (rat brain slices). Panel A shows a normal neuron with intact cytoplasmic and nuclear membrane from a control culture. Panel B shows a very condensed nucleus of an apoptotic neuron from PCP-treated culture.<br /></p><p></span><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5167096315620277378" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZ1eVSQniO4Q5zgeqSQDOA9PpcBb0PZNgYIBkDfl5PstvNvSXlBz-X-OLa559qXayd2VOKagaPmjRi3HVp-NFF7GMpnfTc_2kIIR3TOqsBG9V0CvRsw1lRSgQQJCYlWOx8iWbebu2Gr8Tz/s320/pcp+neuron.jpg" border="0" /><br /><a href="http://www.fda.gov/nctr/science/journals/text/vol5iss1/rrp0305.htm">http://www.fda.gov/nctr/science/journals/text/vol5iss1/rrp0305.htm</a> </p><p><br />As you can well imagine, the knowledge from observing these fine details has contributed much to the understanding of such small organisms and disease processes.<br /><br /><br /><br /></p>Janet Rajczykhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00354990733568671231noreply@blogger.com0